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This document provides a comprehensive overview of immunology, detailing the immune system's defense against pathogens. It explores the host-pathogen relationship, discusses key immunological terms, and outlines the innate and adaptive immune systems. The innate system, present from birth, is highlighted for its essential components and evolutionary significance. The document explains innate immune effectors, serum proteins' roles, and the inflammatory response. Recognition mechanisms, both in...

The Russian Civil War began the moment the Bolsheviks seized power on the night of 24-25 October 1917. Within a week, forces loyal to Kerensky’s Provisional Government tried to wrest power from the Bolsheviks at the Battle of Pulkovo Heights on the outside of Petrograd. Few, however, were keen for a fight and Lenin’s promise to hold elections to the Constituent Assembly and form a coalition administration with the Left SRs. 1Robert Service argues that Trotsky’s leadership was a crucial t...

From 1922, Lenin suffered a series of strokes which weakened his ability to work. During his illness and after his death, the Politburo agreed to act as a collective leadership. All the members claimed that they did not want to replace Lenin or have a similar position of authority. Despite this, a succession struggle had begun behind the scenes as early as 1923. On January 21, 1924, Lenin died. He was only fifty-three. Trotsky was away in the Caucasus that month, and Stalin teleg...