Chapter 2 - The Scientific Approach and Alternative Approaches to
Investigation
Learning Objectives:
1. Explain what is meant by scientific investigation, giving examples of both
scientific and nonscientific investigations
2. Discuss the 7 steps of the hypothetico-deductive method, using an example of
your own
3. Discuss alternative perspectives on what makes good research.
Introduction
Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical,
organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gathering data, analyze them, and
draw valid conclusions from them. Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition, but is purposive and rigorous. Furthermore, scientific investigation
tends to be more objective than subjective and helps managers to highlight the most critical
factors in the workplace that need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize, or solve
problems. Scientific investigation and managerial decision making are integral aspects of
effective problem-solving. The term scientific research applies, therefore, to both basic and
applied research.
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
Each of these characteristics can be explained in the context of a concrete example. Let us
consider the case of a manager who is interested in investigating how employees’
commitment to the organization can be increased. The hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:
1. Purposiveness
a. The manager has started the research with a definite aim or purpose. The
focus is on increasing the commitment of employees to the organization. The
research has a purposive focus.
2. Rigor
a. A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design add rigor to a
purposive study. Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree
of exactitude in research investigations. In our example, say the manager of
an organization asks 10 to 12 of its employees to indicate what would
increase their level of commitment to it. If solely on the basis of their
responses, the manager reaches several conclusions on how employees
commitment can be increased, the whole approach to the investigation is
unscientific. It lacks rigor for the following reasons
i. The conclusions are incorrectly drawn because they are based on the
responses of just a few employees
ii. The manner of framing and addressing the questions could have
introduced bias or incorrectness in the responses
iii. There might be many other important influences on organizational
commitment that is a small sample of respondents did not or could not
verbalize during the interviews, and the researcher has therefore
failed to include them
, b. Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought-
out methodology.
3. Testability
a. Testability is a property that applies to the hypotheses of a study. Hypothesis
as a tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts what you expect to find
in your empirical data. Hypotheses are derived from theory, which is based on
the logical beliefs of the researcher and on previous, scientific research. A
scientific hypothesis must be testable.
4. Replicability
a. Replication demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been supported
merely by chance, but are reflective of the true state of affairs in the
population. Replication is made possible by a detailed description of the
design details of the study, such as the sampling method and the data
collection methods that we used. This information should create the possibility
to replicate the research.
5. Precision and confidence
a. Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a
sample. Precision reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results
on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.
b. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it
is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true. This is called
confidence level.
6. Objectivity
a. The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional
values. Much damage can be sustained by organizations that implement non-
data-based or misleading conclusions drawn from research. The more
objective the interpretation of the data, the more scientific the research
investigation becomes.
7. Generalizability
a. Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in
one organizational setting to other settings. The wider the range of
applicability of the solutions generated by the research, the more useful the
research is to the users.
8. Parsimony
a. Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in
generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex
research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors.
Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem and
the important factors that influence it.
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
Scientific research pursues a step-by-step, logical, organized, and rigorous method to find a
solution to a problem. The scientific method was developed in the context of the natural
sciences, where it has been the foundation of many important discoveries.
Investigation
Learning Objectives:
1. Explain what is meant by scientific investigation, giving examples of both
scientific and nonscientific investigations
2. Discuss the 7 steps of the hypothetico-deductive method, using an example of
your own
3. Discuss alternative perspectives on what makes good research.
Introduction
Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical,
organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gathering data, analyze them, and
draw valid conclusions from them. Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition, but is purposive and rigorous. Furthermore, scientific investigation
tends to be more objective than subjective and helps managers to highlight the most critical
factors in the workplace that need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize, or solve
problems. Scientific investigation and managerial decision making are integral aspects of
effective problem-solving. The term scientific research applies, therefore, to both basic and
applied research.
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
Each of these characteristics can be explained in the context of a concrete example. Let us
consider the case of a manager who is interested in investigating how employees’
commitment to the organization can be increased. The hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:
1. Purposiveness
a. The manager has started the research with a definite aim or purpose. The
focus is on increasing the commitment of employees to the organization. The
research has a purposive focus.
2. Rigor
a. A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design add rigor to a
purposive study. Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree
of exactitude in research investigations. In our example, say the manager of
an organization asks 10 to 12 of its employees to indicate what would
increase their level of commitment to it. If solely on the basis of their
responses, the manager reaches several conclusions on how employees
commitment can be increased, the whole approach to the investigation is
unscientific. It lacks rigor for the following reasons
i. The conclusions are incorrectly drawn because they are based on the
responses of just a few employees
ii. The manner of framing and addressing the questions could have
introduced bias or incorrectness in the responses
iii. There might be many other important influences on organizational
commitment that is a small sample of respondents did not or could not
verbalize during the interviews, and the researcher has therefore
failed to include them
, b. Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought-
out methodology.
3. Testability
a. Testability is a property that applies to the hypotheses of a study. Hypothesis
as a tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts what you expect to find
in your empirical data. Hypotheses are derived from theory, which is based on
the logical beliefs of the researcher and on previous, scientific research. A
scientific hypothesis must be testable.
4. Replicability
a. Replication demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been supported
merely by chance, but are reflective of the true state of affairs in the
population. Replication is made possible by a detailed description of the
design details of the study, such as the sampling method and the data
collection methods that we used. This information should create the possibility
to replicate the research.
5. Precision and confidence
a. Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a
sample. Precision reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results
on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.
b. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it
is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true. This is called
confidence level.
6. Objectivity
a. The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional
values. Much damage can be sustained by organizations that implement non-
data-based or misleading conclusions drawn from research. The more
objective the interpretation of the data, the more scientific the research
investigation becomes.
7. Generalizability
a. Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in
one organizational setting to other settings. The wider the range of
applicability of the solutions generated by the research, the more useful the
research is to the users.
8. Parsimony
a. Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in
generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex
research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors.
Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem and
the important factors that influence it.
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
Scientific research pursues a step-by-step, logical, organized, and rigorous method to find a
solution to a problem. The scientific method was developed in the context of the natural
sciences, where it has been the foundation of many important discoveries.
