Methodology 1: Exam preparation
LECTURES 1,2 – PHYSOLOPHY OF SCIENCE – MORLING 1,2
What is science? History & foundations
RM_1_SLIDE:
Scientific disciplines:
• Bachelor of Arts (BA) – culture (= law, literature, philosophy..)
• Bachelor of Science – application of scientific method (Natural sciences, Social
Sciences, Formal sciences which do not depend on empirical observations).
Scientific method:
• Empirical: collection of new data (facts)
• Formal: correct reasoning based on data
• Mars, Venus, Earth example
Sources of Knowledge
Scientifically unacceptable
• Tenacity
• Intuition
• Authority
Scientifically critical
• Empiricism: systematic observation
• Rationalism: formally correct reasoning
Scientific knowledge: derives from continuous interplay of empiricism and rationalism.
History of science
Golden Age of Athen
• Plato: theory of ideas, observations mistrusted, new knowledge derives from
reasoning from god implanted ideas, strong rationalism no empiricism
• Aristoteles: knowledge derives from idea & observation; deduction and
1600-1700 induction; strong rationalism some empiricism
Helenism: spread of Greek culture under alexander the great
Golden age of Alexandria: strong empiricism (observation) no rationalism
Geocentric solar system: Ptolomei
Islamic zivilisation: numeral system + algebra
Medival period: Late = redescovery of aristotele
Scientific revolution
• Revolution of natural philosophy
• Emphasis on observation
• Mathematization of reality
• Bookprint + Telescope
Copernicus: heliocentric solarsystem
Gallilei: mathematization, strategic observation, experimentation
Kepler: orbits around sun are elyptic
, Newton: principia
Modern science:
Theory predicts the data and the data tests the theory.
Contributing to science
• Choose topic
• Study literature
• Formulate question
• Find method to test
• Test
• Analyze data
• Report findings
Scientific publications (all peer reviewed):
• Books
• Review articles
• Research reports
RM_2_SLIDECAST
Philosophy
• Mother of science
• Meta science (behind the science).
• Philosophy of science: studies foundation, methods and implications of science.
Assumption: a statement accepted without proof
Fundamental Assumptions:
• Ture reality exists
• Reality is ordered
• The order can be discovered
• The discovered order is never final
Science is concerned with reality (observations) and construct (not observable).
Theoretical Construct: based on data we make inferences about an invisible world.
Reification: we tend to treat constructs as if they were part of reality.
Induction: inducing a construct based on data. For instance I see 4 white swans (data) and
induce that all swans are white (hypothesis).
Hypothesis: testable explanations of a phenomenon, not directly observable
Prediction: observable outcomes of the hypothesis, bound to situations
Deduction: from Hypothesis deducing the prediction/data. The data in turn tests the
Hypothesis.
,Theory: a system of logically coherent constructs and statements about a certain area of
reality.
• No contradictions among statements
• From theory hypothesis should be deduced
• Falsifiable and parsimonious
Falsification: data is not consistent with the prediction
Verification does not exist
Confirmation of antecedent / Modus ponens (correct)
If Q then R. Q. R.
Confirmation of consequent (wrong)
If Q then R. R. Q.
Denial of the antecedent (wrong)
If Q then R. not Q. not R.
Denial of consequent/ Modus tollens (right)
If Q then R. not R. not Q.
Scientific argument = only valid if H (antecedent) or not H.
The Verification is an inductive argument, we never know if those are true. At best probably
true.
Good theory
• Falsification
• Bold predictions
Ideal situation
• Strong theories lead to different predictions
• Test predictions in critical experiment
Pseudoscience
• Unfalsifiable ideas
• Incidental observations
• Resistence against scientific researcg
• Ignore or deny counter evidence.
Morling CH 1-2
Research producers
Research consumers: Evidence based treatment: therapies supported by research
Scientisis…
• Act es empiricists: systematically observe
• Test and revise theories
, • Empirical approach to applied research (=real world problems) and basic research
(=contribution to general knowledge).
• Publication of work
Empiricism: evidence from senses or instruments assisting senses to draw conclusions. Aim
to be systematic, rigorous and make work verifiable.
Theory-data-cycle: Theory -> Research question -> Research design -> hypothesis > data->
either supports the theory or leads to revision of theory or research design.
Good theory: falsifiable, supported by data and parsimony.
Basic research: enhance body of knowledge
Applied research: real world context.
Translational research: use of lessons from basic research to develop and test application in
real life.
Research vs. experience:
Experience:
• No comparison group
• Is confounded
Research vs intuition:
Intuition:
• We tend to believe good stories
• Availability heuristic: things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking
• Present/present bias: failure to consider appropriate comparison groups. We only
notice what is present.
• Confirmation bias: tendency to look at info that confirms what we believe
• Bias blind spot: believe that we are unlikely to fall prey for the other biases
Research vs. authorities
Authorities:
• Could be based on research
• Experience
• Intuition
Research
• Probabilistic: explains a certain proportion of the possible cases, not all of them.
• Scientific sources
o Journal articles
▪ empirical articles: first time presentation of results; detailed;
▪ review journal articles: summary of published studies; meta-analysis
o Chapter in edited books
o Full length books
Lectures 3-12: Behavioral Methods: the technical part
SLIDE_3
LECTURES 1,2 – PHYSOLOPHY OF SCIENCE – MORLING 1,2
What is science? History & foundations
RM_1_SLIDE:
Scientific disciplines:
• Bachelor of Arts (BA) – culture (= law, literature, philosophy..)
• Bachelor of Science – application of scientific method (Natural sciences, Social
Sciences, Formal sciences which do not depend on empirical observations).
Scientific method:
• Empirical: collection of new data (facts)
• Formal: correct reasoning based on data
• Mars, Venus, Earth example
Sources of Knowledge
Scientifically unacceptable
• Tenacity
• Intuition
• Authority
Scientifically critical
• Empiricism: systematic observation
• Rationalism: formally correct reasoning
Scientific knowledge: derives from continuous interplay of empiricism and rationalism.
History of science
Golden Age of Athen
• Plato: theory of ideas, observations mistrusted, new knowledge derives from
reasoning from god implanted ideas, strong rationalism no empiricism
• Aristoteles: knowledge derives from idea & observation; deduction and
1600-1700 induction; strong rationalism some empiricism
Helenism: spread of Greek culture under alexander the great
Golden age of Alexandria: strong empiricism (observation) no rationalism
Geocentric solar system: Ptolomei
Islamic zivilisation: numeral system + algebra
Medival period: Late = redescovery of aristotele
Scientific revolution
• Revolution of natural philosophy
• Emphasis on observation
• Mathematization of reality
• Bookprint + Telescope
Copernicus: heliocentric solarsystem
Gallilei: mathematization, strategic observation, experimentation
Kepler: orbits around sun are elyptic
, Newton: principia
Modern science:
Theory predicts the data and the data tests the theory.
Contributing to science
• Choose topic
• Study literature
• Formulate question
• Find method to test
• Test
• Analyze data
• Report findings
Scientific publications (all peer reviewed):
• Books
• Review articles
• Research reports
RM_2_SLIDECAST
Philosophy
• Mother of science
• Meta science (behind the science).
• Philosophy of science: studies foundation, methods and implications of science.
Assumption: a statement accepted without proof
Fundamental Assumptions:
• Ture reality exists
• Reality is ordered
• The order can be discovered
• The discovered order is never final
Science is concerned with reality (observations) and construct (not observable).
Theoretical Construct: based on data we make inferences about an invisible world.
Reification: we tend to treat constructs as if they were part of reality.
Induction: inducing a construct based on data. For instance I see 4 white swans (data) and
induce that all swans are white (hypothesis).
Hypothesis: testable explanations of a phenomenon, not directly observable
Prediction: observable outcomes of the hypothesis, bound to situations
Deduction: from Hypothesis deducing the prediction/data. The data in turn tests the
Hypothesis.
,Theory: a system of logically coherent constructs and statements about a certain area of
reality.
• No contradictions among statements
• From theory hypothesis should be deduced
• Falsifiable and parsimonious
Falsification: data is not consistent with the prediction
Verification does not exist
Confirmation of antecedent / Modus ponens (correct)
If Q then R. Q. R.
Confirmation of consequent (wrong)
If Q then R. R. Q.
Denial of the antecedent (wrong)
If Q then R. not Q. not R.
Denial of consequent/ Modus tollens (right)
If Q then R. not R. not Q.
Scientific argument = only valid if H (antecedent) or not H.
The Verification is an inductive argument, we never know if those are true. At best probably
true.
Good theory
• Falsification
• Bold predictions
Ideal situation
• Strong theories lead to different predictions
• Test predictions in critical experiment
Pseudoscience
• Unfalsifiable ideas
• Incidental observations
• Resistence against scientific researcg
• Ignore or deny counter evidence.
Morling CH 1-2
Research producers
Research consumers: Evidence based treatment: therapies supported by research
Scientisis…
• Act es empiricists: systematically observe
• Test and revise theories
, • Empirical approach to applied research (=real world problems) and basic research
(=contribution to general knowledge).
• Publication of work
Empiricism: evidence from senses or instruments assisting senses to draw conclusions. Aim
to be systematic, rigorous and make work verifiable.
Theory-data-cycle: Theory -> Research question -> Research design -> hypothesis > data->
either supports the theory or leads to revision of theory or research design.
Good theory: falsifiable, supported by data and parsimony.
Basic research: enhance body of knowledge
Applied research: real world context.
Translational research: use of lessons from basic research to develop and test application in
real life.
Research vs. experience:
Experience:
• No comparison group
• Is confounded
Research vs intuition:
Intuition:
• We tend to believe good stories
• Availability heuristic: things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking
• Present/present bias: failure to consider appropriate comparison groups. We only
notice what is present.
• Confirmation bias: tendency to look at info that confirms what we believe
• Bias blind spot: believe that we are unlikely to fall prey for the other biases
Research vs. authorities
Authorities:
• Could be based on research
• Experience
• Intuition
Research
• Probabilistic: explains a certain proportion of the possible cases, not all of them.
• Scientific sources
o Journal articles
▪ empirical articles: first time presentation of results; detailed;
▪ review journal articles: summary of published studies; meta-analysis
o Chapter in edited books
o Full length books
Lectures 3-12: Behavioral Methods: the technical part
SLIDE_3
