Learning objectives of course component 1: From phrenology to scientific theory
You can describe phrenology, and the pseudo-scientific approaches of physiognomy,
mesmerism, spiritualism, and mental healing, and evaluate the approaches from a scientific
perspective.
Phrenology: how well a function is developed can be assessed by determining the size of the
bump on the skull. When a function is well developed, it will occupy more space.
Localization. (1800 – 1850, Gall)
Pseudo-scientific approaches: not based on empirical evidence (1800 – 1850):
- Physiognomy: face reflects character.
o self-fulfilling prophecy
- Mesmerism: healing through magnetic forces.
o Now: hypnosis, stones or bracelets
o Placebo effect
- Spiritualism: contact with the spirits of the dead.
o Now: some people still believe in this
o Cold reading: you ask many questions
o Hallucinations
- Mental healing: Healing through correct thinking.
o Now: mindfulness, CBT
o Placebo effect
You can describe early discoveries concerning localization of mental functions in the brain
(Broca), the speed of nerve transmission (Helmholtz) and mental processing (Donders), and
psychophysics (Weber, Fechner), and assess their current significance.
1850 - 1900
Broca: the ability to articulate speech is localized to the posterior part of the left inferior
frontal gyrus (Broca’s area)(patient Leborgne). Thus higher mental functions are localized.
Helmholtz: speed of nerve conduction is 30 m/s (108 km/h) in frogs and humans. He
concluded that conduction of the nerve impulse takes time and can be measured (against
Müller: “infinitely fast”).
Donders: invented a subtraction method to measure the speed of mental processing. Task A
(simple reaction), Task B (choice reaction) and Task C (go/no-go reaction).
- A – C = duration of recognition stage, 50 milliseconds
- C – B = duration of choice stage, 50 milliseconds
Conclusion: mental processes take time and can be measured
Weber’s law: “in observing the disparity between things that are compared, we perceive not
the difference between the things, but the ratio of this difference to the magnitude of things
compared”: ΔR/R = k
- R: first weight
, - ΔR: extra weight
- k: constant
Fechner’s law: Weber’s law would produce a logarithmic relation between the stimulus
intensity (physical) and the sensation (psychological): S = k log R. Stimuli need to have a
certain minimum strength to be perceivable.
You can explain the basic tenets of classic association theory (Aristotle, Locke) and the
classic association model of language (Wernicke), and describe the relation between modern
connectionism (Rumelhart, McClelland) and its prescientific associationist counterpart.
Aristotle (4th century BC):
- tabula rasa: mind lacks content at birth and is filled by perception
- modality-specific sensory images -> supra-model faculty: common sense: here,
associations may be formed between modality-specific images -> associations can be
used for thinking or mental functions or go into memory
- associationism: mental processes proceed via associations
- Law of Contiguity: If two things repeatedly occur together, then the occurrence of
one thing will remember us of the other.
Enlightenment (1600 – late 1700’s)
Locke (17th century):
- Empiricism: all knowledge is obtained via the senses
- Association theory: 4 basic assumptions:
o Blank slate (tabula rasa) assumption: the mind is empty when we are born.
o Sensoristic assumption: our senses provide the elementary mental images.
o Atomistic assumption: the sensory images are the building block for the
construction of more complex mental contents.
o Associative assumption: this construction is done by association.
Aristotle and Locke:
- Mental functions are domain-general/horizontal: they operate in the same way in
different content domains.
1850 - 1900
You can describe phrenology, and the pseudo-scientific approaches of physiognomy,
mesmerism, spiritualism, and mental healing, and evaluate the approaches from a scientific
perspective.
Phrenology: how well a function is developed can be assessed by determining the size of the
bump on the skull. When a function is well developed, it will occupy more space.
Localization. (1800 – 1850, Gall)
Pseudo-scientific approaches: not based on empirical evidence (1800 – 1850):
- Physiognomy: face reflects character.
o self-fulfilling prophecy
- Mesmerism: healing through magnetic forces.
o Now: hypnosis, stones or bracelets
o Placebo effect
- Spiritualism: contact with the spirits of the dead.
o Now: some people still believe in this
o Cold reading: you ask many questions
o Hallucinations
- Mental healing: Healing through correct thinking.
o Now: mindfulness, CBT
o Placebo effect
You can describe early discoveries concerning localization of mental functions in the brain
(Broca), the speed of nerve transmission (Helmholtz) and mental processing (Donders), and
psychophysics (Weber, Fechner), and assess their current significance.
1850 - 1900
Broca: the ability to articulate speech is localized to the posterior part of the left inferior
frontal gyrus (Broca’s area)(patient Leborgne). Thus higher mental functions are localized.
Helmholtz: speed of nerve conduction is 30 m/s (108 km/h) in frogs and humans. He
concluded that conduction of the nerve impulse takes time and can be measured (against
Müller: “infinitely fast”).
Donders: invented a subtraction method to measure the speed of mental processing. Task A
(simple reaction), Task B (choice reaction) and Task C (go/no-go reaction).
- A – C = duration of recognition stage, 50 milliseconds
- C – B = duration of choice stage, 50 milliseconds
Conclusion: mental processes take time and can be measured
Weber’s law: “in observing the disparity between things that are compared, we perceive not
the difference between the things, but the ratio of this difference to the magnitude of things
compared”: ΔR/R = k
- R: first weight
, - ΔR: extra weight
- k: constant
Fechner’s law: Weber’s law would produce a logarithmic relation between the stimulus
intensity (physical) and the sensation (psychological): S = k log R. Stimuli need to have a
certain minimum strength to be perceivable.
You can explain the basic tenets of classic association theory (Aristotle, Locke) and the
classic association model of language (Wernicke), and describe the relation between modern
connectionism (Rumelhart, McClelland) and its prescientific associationist counterpart.
Aristotle (4th century BC):
- tabula rasa: mind lacks content at birth and is filled by perception
- modality-specific sensory images -> supra-model faculty: common sense: here,
associations may be formed between modality-specific images -> associations can be
used for thinking or mental functions or go into memory
- associationism: mental processes proceed via associations
- Law of Contiguity: If two things repeatedly occur together, then the occurrence of
one thing will remember us of the other.
Enlightenment (1600 – late 1700’s)
Locke (17th century):
- Empiricism: all knowledge is obtained via the senses
- Association theory: 4 basic assumptions:
o Blank slate (tabula rasa) assumption: the mind is empty when we are born.
o Sensoristic assumption: our senses provide the elementary mental images.
o Atomistic assumption: the sensory images are the building block for the
construction of more complex mental contents.
o Associative assumption: this construction is done by association.
Aristotle and Locke:
- Mental functions are domain-general/horizontal: they operate in the same way in
different content domains.
1850 - 1900
