Samenvattingen Artikelen Spelling
Variation in Spelling Ability in Children
In early stages of learning to spell, child acquires the ability to segment a word into its phonemes (start -> s t a
r). The child has to acquire sound-letter knowledge to connect each phoneme to it corresponding grapheme.
Children will also be confronted with words that are inconsistent in their phoneme-to-grapheme relationships.
These inconsistent words can only be spelled correctly when phonological, morphological and/or orthographic
rules are used, when words are spelled by analogy to other words or when words are known by heart. To apply
a phonological spelling rule, a speller needs to know how phonemes map into graphemes. To apply a
morphological spelling rule, the speller has to have knowledge of the meaning of words and their derivatives.
Phonological and morphological rules are based on the phonology of the language, and may be relatively easy
to learn. To apply an orthographic spelling rule, the speller has to have knowledge of how graphemes go
together according to the typical structure of a particular language. This rule is not sensitive tot phonological
context, but to the orthographic context.
There are roughly two ways to learn the spelling of words that are not phoneme-to-grapheme consistent -> by
memorization or by the application of spelling rules. Spellers memorize each word separately. Pure
memorization may be effective for words for which there are no spelling rules that they obey to or there are no
other words that are spelled analogous to these word. Main disadvantage is that it is impossible to know all
words by heart. It may cause the wrong belief that there are no underlying regularities for spelling of words.
Learning to apply spelling rules enables spellers to write practiced words correctly and to use this knowledge
for the application of new words within that category. A spelling rule replicates the underling regularities of the
orthography. Spellers can also use a structured approach to spell inconsistent words of multiple word
categories correctly. A structured approach can involve the use of syllable or phoneme segmentation in
combination with the application of spelling rules.
There are a number of kindergarten skills that predict the spelling acquisition of young children. Precursor skills
with highest predictive value are:
Phonological awareness -> can be defined as the ability to segment words into their phonemes. This
important, because spelling requires children to divide a word into its phonemes and connect each
phoneme to its corresponding grapheme(s).
Letter knowledge -> spelling in an alphabetic language requires the knowledge of all graphemes that
represent the phonemes of the language.
Working memory -> children have to keep teach of the coupling of phonemes to graphemes in the right
order, to be able to spell word correctly. To spell words, lexical phonological info has to be retrieved from
long-term memory.
Rapid naming -> involves the retrieval of lexical phonological representation from memory.
Spelling acquisition is characterized by large inter-individual variation. It is not yet clear why some children
learn to spell fluently, whereas others develop spelling problems. Also it is unknown whether spelling
acquisition of poor spellers is similar to that of good spellers. There are quantitative differences between poor
and good spellers, but whether these differences are also qualitative nature is still unsolved. A frequently used
way to compare the quality of the spelling processes of poor and good spellers is a comparison of spelling
errors. Type of errors make reveals for spellers’ knowledge of underlying orthographic principles or rules. There
is abundant evidence that poor spellers make more errors than good speller, but the kind of errors is similar in
both groups. They make more errors on irregular than on regular words, and more on CCV than on CVC (C =
consonant, V = vowel). Both groups mainly commit phonetically acceptable errors. A phonetically acceptable
spelling error can be pronounced identically to the target word when grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence
rules are followed. Evaluating spelling errors solely on based on grapheme-to-phoneme rules underestimates
the phonetic complexity of the spelling of children. Although spelling errors of younger or poor speller are
usually consistent that those of older or average or good spellers, there is no evidence that phonology plays a
less important role in these younger or poor spellers. Majority of studies seems to indicate that the differences
between poor and good spellers are predominantly quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.
Another important aspect of becoming a skilled speller is the development of spelling consciousness. To be
able to know to which words, or word parts, particular spelling rules or approaches have to be applied, or to
know which words have to be known by heart, speller have to actively think about their own spelling. Thinking
, and reflecting on one’s spelling process and the ability to detect and correct spelling errors is called spelling
consciousness. Average or good spellers usually have better developed spelling consciousness than poor
speller. Poor spellers make more spelling errors in free writing assignments than good spellers. Moreover, poor
spellers have more problems detecting spelling errors.
Spelling depends, even more so than reading, on instruction. Spelling instruction may focus on teaching a way
to memorize words, a spelling rule, or teaching a structured approach that can be used to spell inconsistent
words or multiple word categories correctly. There are several strategies that can be taught to spellers for
memorizing the spelling of words. An example of an effective procedure for memorizing of ambiguous
inconsistent words is the copy-cover-compare procedure. This strategy is useful for words with an ambiguous
part. This procedure requires spellers to study the spelling of a word closely, copy the word, cover the word,
write the word from memory and finally check the word and correct when needed. This procedures is similar to
the visual-dictation approach that has been seen in Dutch studies. Visual dictation requires spellers to study a
word carefully for a few seconds, and subsequently the spellers have to spell the word from memory while the
word is covered. After that, the word is made visible again and the speller has to check the spelling and makes
corrections when needed. And important aspect of both methods is spelling from memory instead of just
copying the word. Spelling form memory is particularly effective for poor spellers. Another effective procedure
for the memorization of words that are spelled inconsistently is regularizing the spelling of these words (also
known as overpronunciation). Overpronunciation is regularizing the spelling of words by reading the particular
word aloud according to prototypical grapheme-to-phoneme relationships (Wednesday as wed nes day). This
approach is particularly effective for memorizing strange words. This method is effective for both groups of
spellers. Thus memorization of word lists could be a part of the spelling instruction, but it is not really effective
if rules determine the spelling. Spellers may develop the belief that learning to spell is a word-by-word process.
Spelling rules enable spellers to spell novel words that contain the same spelling rules as known or practiced
words. Spelling rules can be derived from phonological, morphological and/or orthographic principles of
language, but can also be taught to spell particular word by analogy of other words. Spelling by analogy is to
spell inconsistent words to the common rimes of key words. Only when a speller knows the spelling of the
keyword, will he know how to spell he analogous word. On the basis of just the sound structure of a word,
spellers are unable to determine according to the analogy of which word an inconsistent word has to be
spelled. Learning the spelling based on the application of rules appears a safer bet. Rules can be taught
explicitly. Explicit rule instruction is effective for both poor and good spellers. Teaching a structured approach
for the spelling of words may involve the teaching of one or more spelling rules in combination with another
approach such as syllable segmentation. Effectiveness of teaching a structured approach for self-correction for
both poor and good spellers. Various studies have shown the positive effects of self-correction on spelling
performance for spellers. Poor spellers made more progress when they had to detect their spelling orders
themselves and had to self-correct them, that when their teacher marked the errors. Important is that the
feedback is given immediately after dictation.
Spelling that focused on improving the spelling consciousness of spellers is effective for all spellers. Teaching of
meta-cognitive strategies but also teaching of a structured approach to spell words correctly. Spellers had to
listen carefully to the word, segment the word into syllables and think for each syllable about the spelling rules
that have to be applied to spell that syllable correctly.
To summarize, explicit instruction is effective for both poor and good spellers. This was true for instruction with
respect tot memorization of irregular words, teaching a spelling rule, teaching a structured approach to spell
word or multiple word categories correctly and stimulating spelling consciousness.
Spelling rules applied in Dutch language to spell inconsistent words correctly: A phonological rule is for example
both nouns and verbs with w, ew or iw that are spelled as uw, eeuw or ieuw. Example of a morphological rule
contains nouns with a final p sound that in some words has to be written as a p and in other words as a b,
depending on the plural form of the word. Dutch orthographic rules are artificial in nature because they are not
based on phonology but are made by spelling reformers. Consequently, these rules are more complicated to
apply. For example the consonant-doubling rule for polysyllabic words with a short vowel (kat -> katten).
Working Memory in Children With Learning Disabilities in Reading Versus Spelling: Searching for Overlapping
and Specific Cognitive Factors (Duits onderzoek)
Variation in Spelling Ability in Children
In early stages of learning to spell, child acquires the ability to segment a word into its phonemes (start -> s t a
r). The child has to acquire sound-letter knowledge to connect each phoneme to it corresponding grapheme.
Children will also be confronted with words that are inconsistent in their phoneme-to-grapheme relationships.
These inconsistent words can only be spelled correctly when phonological, morphological and/or orthographic
rules are used, when words are spelled by analogy to other words or when words are known by heart. To apply
a phonological spelling rule, a speller needs to know how phonemes map into graphemes. To apply a
morphological spelling rule, the speller has to have knowledge of the meaning of words and their derivatives.
Phonological and morphological rules are based on the phonology of the language, and may be relatively easy
to learn. To apply an orthographic spelling rule, the speller has to have knowledge of how graphemes go
together according to the typical structure of a particular language. This rule is not sensitive tot phonological
context, but to the orthographic context.
There are roughly two ways to learn the spelling of words that are not phoneme-to-grapheme consistent -> by
memorization or by the application of spelling rules. Spellers memorize each word separately. Pure
memorization may be effective for words for which there are no spelling rules that they obey to or there are no
other words that are spelled analogous to these word. Main disadvantage is that it is impossible to know all
words by heart. It may cause the wrong belief that there are no underlying regularities for spelling of words.
Learning to apply spelling rules enables spellers to write practiced words correctly and to use this knowledge
for the application of new words within that category. A spelling rule replicates the underling regularities of the
orthography. Spellers can also use a structured approach to spell inconsistent words of multiple word
categories correctly. A structured approach can involve the use of syllable or phoneme segmentation in
combination with the application of spelling rules.
There are a number of kindergarten skills that predict the spelling acquisition of young children. Precursor skills
with highest predictive value are:
Phonological awareness -> can be defined as the ability to segment words into their phonemes. This
important, because spelling requires children to divide a word into its phonemes and connect each
phoneme to its corresponding grapheme(s).
Letter knowledge -> spelling in an alphabetic language requires the knowledge of all graphemes that
represent the phonemes of the language.
Working memory -> children have to keep teach of the coupling of phonemes to graphemes in the right
order, to be able to spell word correctly. To spell words, lexical phonological info has to be retrieved from
long-term memory.
Rapid naming -> involves the retrieval of lexical phonological representation from memory.
Spelling acquisition is characterized by large inter-individual variation. It is not yet clear why some children
learn to spell fluently, whereas others develop spelling problems. Also it is unknown whether spelling
acquisition of poor spellers is similar to that of good spellers. There are quantitative differences between poor
and good spellers, but whether these differences are also qualitative nature is still unsolved. A frequently used
way to compare the quality of the spelling processes of poor and good spellers is a comparison of spelling
errors. Type of errors make reveals for spellers’ knowledge of underlying orthographic principles or rules. There
is abundant evidence that poor spellers make more errors than good speller, but the kind of errors is similar in
both groups. They make more errors on irregular than on regular words, and more on CCV than on CVC (C =
consonant, V = vowel). Both groups mainly commit phonetically acceptable errors. A phonetically acceptable
spelling error can be pronounced identically to the target word when grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence
rules are followed. Evaluating spelling errors solely on based on grapheme-to-phoneme rules underestimates
the phonetic complexity of the spelling of children. Although spelling errors of younger or poor speller are
usually consistent that those of older or average or good spellers, there is no evidence that phonology plays a
less important role in these younger or poor spellers. Majority of studies seems to indicate that the differences
between poor and good spellers are predominantly quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.
Another important aspect of becoming a skilled speller is the development of spelling consciousness. To be
able to know to which words, or word parts, particular spelling rules or approaches have to be applied, or to
know which words have to be known by heart, speller have to actively think about their own spelling. Thinking
, and reflecting on one’s spelling process and the ability to detect and correct spelling errors is called spelling
consciousness. Average or good spellers usually have better developed spelling consciousness than poor
speller. Poor spellers make more spelling errors in free writing assignments than good spellers. Moreover, poor
spellers have more problems detecting spelling errors.
Spelling depends, even more so than reading, on instruction. Spelling instruction may focus on teaching a way
to memorize words, a spelling rule, or teaching a structured approach that can be used to spell inconsistent
words or multiple word categories correctly. There are several strategies that can be taught to spellers for
memorizing the spelling of words. An example of an effective procedure for memorizing of ambiguous
inconsistent words is the copy-cover-compare procedure. This strategy is useful for words with an ambiguous
part. This procedure requires spellers to study the spelling of a word closely, copy the word, cover the word,
write the word from memory and finally check the word and correct when needed. This procedures is similar to
the visual-dictation approach that has been seen in Dutch studies. Visual dictation requires spellers to study a
word carefully for a few seconds, and subsequently the spellers have to spell the word from memory while the
word is covered. After that, the word is made visible again and the speller has to check the spelling and makes
corrections when needed. And important aspect of both methods is spelling from memory instead of just
copying the word. Spelling form memory is particularly effective for poor spellers. Another effective procedure
for the memorization of words that are spelled inconsistently is regularizing the spelling of these words (also
known as overpronunciation). Overpronunciation is regularizing the spelling of words by reading the particular
word aloud according to prototypical grapheme-to-phoneme relationships (Wednesday as wed nes day). This
approach is particularly effective for memorizing strange words. This method is effective for both groups of
spellers. Thus memorization of word lists could be a part of the spelling instruction, but it is not really effective
if rules determine the spelling. Spellers may develop the belief that learning to spell is a word-by-word process.
Spelling rules enable spellers to spell novel words that contain the same spelling rules as known or practiced
words. Spelling rules can be derived from phonological, morphological and/or orthographic principles of
language, but can also be taught to spell particular word by analogy of other words. Spelling by analogy is to
spell inconsistent words to the common rimes of key words. Only when a speller knows the spelling of the
keyword, will he know how to spell he analogous word. On the basis of just the sound structure of a word,
spellers are unable to determine according to the analogy of which word an inconsistent word has to be
spelled. Learning the spelling based on the application of rules appears a safer bet. Rules can be taught
explicitly. Explicit rule instruction is effective for both poor and good spellers. Teaching a structured approach
for the spelling of words may involve the teaching of one or more spelling rules in combination with another
approach such as syllable segmentation. Effectiveness of teaching a structured approach for self-correction for
both poor and good spellers. Various studies have shown the positive effects of self-correction on spelling
performance for spellers. Poor spellers made more progress when they had to detect their spelling orders
themselves and had to self-correct them, that when their teacher marked the errors. Important is that the
feedback is given immediately after dictation.
Spelling that focused on improving the spelling consciousness of spellers is effective for all spellers. Teaching of
meta-cognitive strategies but also teaching of a structured approach to spell words correctly. Spellers had to
listen carefully to the word, segment the word into syllables and think for each syllable about the spelling rules
that have to be applied to spell that syllable correctly.
To summarize, explicit instruction is effective for both poor and good spellers. This was true for instruction with
respect tot memorization of irregular words, teaching a spelling rule, teaching a structured approach to spell
word or multiple word categories correctly and stimulating spelling consciousness.
Spelling rules applied in Dutch language to spell inconsistent words correctly: A phonological rule is for example
both nouns and verbs with w, ew or iw that are spelled as uw, eeuw or ieuw. Example of a morphological rule
contains nouns with a final p sound that in some words has to be written as a p and in other words as a b,
depending on the plural form of the word. Dutch orthographic rules are artificial in nature because they are not
based on phonology but are made by spelling reformers. Consequently, these rules are more complicated to
apply. For example the consonant-doubling rule for polysyllabic words with a short vowel (kat -> katten).
Working Memory in Children With Learning Disabilities in Reading Versus Spelling: Searching for Overlapping
and Specific Cognitive Factors (Duits onderzoek)
