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Summary - Consumer Behavior (6314M0159Y)

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Consumer Behavior (6314M0159Y)
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Complete, easy-to-understand notes for Consumer Behavior. Covers all lectures, articles, theories, models, and exam-relevant concepts with clear explanations and examples from the lecture and Q&A sessions.

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1


WEEK 1: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE

ARTICLES
Bornstein, Robert F., and Paul R. D'agostino. (1992) "Stimulus recognition and the mere
exposure effect." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63 (4), 545.

Mere Exposure Effect: Phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases
liking for that stimulus, even when the exposures are brief or occur without conscious
awareness. It has been observed for a wide range of stimuli, including faces, shapes, and words.

The authors examine whether the mere exposure effect depends on stimulus recognition.

Zajonc’s Original Theory

●​ Repetition increases perceptual fluency → leads to positive affect.
●​ Does not require conscious recognition.

Bornstein’s Two-Factor Theory

Mere exposure involves two processes:

1.​ Positive habituation (initial exposures → increased fluency → liking)
2.​ Boredom/tedium at high exposure levels (decreases liking)

Does recognition mediate the exposure effect?​
The authors aim to test:

Main Hypotheses:

H1: Mere exposure increases liking independently of recognition.

H2: Recognition should not increase at very short exposures (e.g., 5 ms).

H3: When exposure duration is longer (e.g., 500 ms), recognition increases, but the relationship
with liking should differ depending on stimulus type.

H4: Stimulus type matters: complex/heterogeneous stimuli (photos) show different recognition
patterns vs. simple/homogeneous ones (polygons).


Experiment 1

Stimuli Used

●​ Photographs (complex)
●​ Polygons (simple, abstract)

, 2


Exposure Durations

●​ 5 ms (subliminal)
●​ 500 ms (supraliminal)

Procedure

Participants were exposed to stimuli 1, 5, 10, or 20 times, then:

1.​ Rated their liking
2.​ Rated recognition

Liking Results

●​ Liking increased with exposure frequency for all stimuli at both durations.
●​ The mere exposure effect was strongest under 5 ms exposure, supporting the
“subliminal fluency” idea.
●​ However, the effect also occurred at 500 ms, contradicting theories that recognition
eliminates exposure effects.

Exposure → liking works even when people consciously recognize stimuli.

Recognition Results

●​ 5 ms exposures:
○​ Very low recognition across all frequency levels → stimuli were not consciously
processed.
●​ 500 ms exposures:
○​ Recognition increased with exposure frequency for polygons, but not for
photographs.
○​ Photographs showed weaker recognition because they were more heterogeneous
→ harder to remember specific ones.

Interpretation: Recognition patterns depend on stimulus complexity, not on liking.


Experiment 2

Goal: test whether results generalize to:

●​ Another type of stimuli (Welsh figures)
●​ With similar exposure durations and frequency manipulations.

Results

●​ Replicated Experiment 1:

, 3


○​ Liking increased with exposure frequency.
○​ Recognition increased mainly for simpler stimuli.
●​ The dissociation between recognition and liking was again observed.

Conclusion from Experiment 2:

Recognition and affective responses follow separate processes.


Discussion & Conclusions

1.​ The mere exposure effect does not depend on recognition.
○​ Liking increases even when recognition is absent (5 ms exposures).
○​ Liking continues to increase even when recognition rises (500 ms for polygons).
2.​ Recognition and liking follow different patterns.
○​ Recognition increases mainly for simple/homogeneous stimuli.
○​ Liking increases for all stimuli.
3.​ Exposure effects are robust.
○​ Occur for different stimuli (polygons, photos, Welsh figures).
○​ Occur at different exposure durations.
4.​ Supports a fluency-based explanation of mere exposure:
○​ Repetition → increased perceptual fluency → positive affect.
○​ This does not require conscious memory.
5.​ Challenges models claiming exposure effects are purely unconscious.


Why This Article Matters in the Consumer Behavior Context

●​ Consumers prefer logos, brands, faces, songs, and ads simply because they have
seen them before.
●​ Repetition builds warmth and trust, even without recall.
●​ Helps explain:
○​ brand recognition advantage
○​ why high-frequency advertising works
○​ why subtle product placement is effective



Atalay, A. Selin, H. Onur Bodur, and Dina Rasolofoarison (2012), "Shining in the center:
Central gaze cascade effect on product choice." Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (4),
848-866.

Goal: To explain why consumers choose the middle option in a horizontal product array.​
The article tests whether this is due to:

1.​ Visual attention

, 4


2.​ Brand inferences (e.g., “middle = better”)
3.​ Memory-based attention (recall)

It introduces a new mechanism: the central gaze cascade effect.

Horizontal Centrality Effect: People choose the center option more often than left or right.

Central Fixation Bias: At the start of viewing, people naturally look at the center of any display.

Gaze Cascade Effect: Right before choosing, gaze accelerates toward the chosen option.

Central Gaze Cascade Effect: In multi-option arrays, gaze increasingly shifts toward the central
option in the final seconds before choice—even before knowing which item will be chosen.

Visual Attention (Eye Tracking): Measured as fixation frequency and fixation duration.

Memory-Based Attention Measures: Self-reported attention and recall. These do not match
real visual attention.


Results (All Studies)

Study 1A (Eye-tracking, centered planogram)

●​ Center items got more fixations and longer viewing time.
●​ Center items were chosen more (45% vs 27%).
●​ Visual attention mediated the centrality → choice effect.
●​ Brand inferences and self-reported attention did not mediate.
●​ Initial central looking did not predict choice.
●​ Final central fixations did → central gaze cascade effect.

Study 1B (Planogram shifted left or right)

●​ Effect still held even when the array wasn’t in the physical screen center.
●​ Center of the product array still got more attention and more choices.
●​ Central gaze cascade effect replicated.

Study 2 (Real shelf with physical products)

●​ Even when the category was not in the middle of the shelf,​
the center item within the category was chosen more.
●​ Shows the effect is robust and real-world applicable.


Main Conclusions

Table of contents

  1. 01 Mere Exposure Effect: Phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for that stimulus, even when the exposures are brief or occur without conscious awareness. It has been observed for a wide range of stimuli, including faces, shapes, and words. 1
    1. Zajonc’s Original Theory 1
    2. Bornstein’s Two-Factor Theory 1
    3. Main Hypotheses: 1
  2. 02 Experiment 1 1
    1. Stimuli Used 1
    2. Exposure Durations 2
    3. Procedure 2
    4. Liking Results 2
    5. Recognition Results 2
  3. 03 Experiment 2 2
    1. Results 2
    2. Conclusion from Experiment 2: 3
  4. 04 Discussion & Conclusions 3
  5. 05 Why This Article Matters in the Consumer Behavior Context 3
    1. Goal: To explain why consumers choose the middle option in a horizontal product array.​The article tests whether this is due to: 3
  6. 06 Results (All Studies) 4
    1. Study 1A (Eye-tracking, centered planogram) 4
    2. Study 1B (Planogram shifted left or right) 4
    3. Study 2 (Real shelf with physical products) 4
  7. 07 Main Conclusions 4
    1. Associative Network Model: Memory consists of nodes connected by associations. Some nodes share a common third node but are not directly linked—these are merely associated nodes. 5
    2. Mere Association Effect (new contribution): Automatic transfer of meanings/valence between indirectly related concepts, triggered by: 5
    3. Cognitive Transfer: Specific beliefs/attributes transfer (e.g., "unhealthy"). 5
    4. Affective Transfer: Valence (positive/negative feelings) transfers. 5
    5. Boundary Condition: The effect is stronger across different categories and suppressed within the same category. 5
  8. 08 Main Results from All Studies 5
    1. Study 1a — Cognitive Transfer via Phonetic Similarity 5
    2. Study 1b — Implicit Evidence (IAT) 6
    3. Study 1c — Visual Mere Associations 6
    4. Study 2 — Affective Transfer via Valenced Primes 6
    5. Study 3a — Within-Category Suppression 6
    6. Study 3b — Category Boundary Manipulation 6
  9. 09 Practical Implications 7
    1. Sensory Marketing: Marketing that engages consumers’ senses and affects their perceptions, judgments, and behavior. It includes deliberate design of sensory cues or indirect activation through environments and product attributes. 7
    2. Embodied Cognition: Physical sensations influence cognitive processes and judgments (e.g., warmth → social warmth). 7
    3. Cross-Modal Effects: One sensory input influences another sense’s perception (e.g., smell influences taste; sound influences perceived product weight). 7
  10. 10 Main Concepts - Senses 7
    1. 1. Vision 8
    2. 2. Sound 8
    3. 3. Smell (Olfaction) 8
    4. 4. Taste 8
    5. 5. Touch (Haptics) 8
  11. 11 Integrated Sensory Processing Principles 8
    1. 1. Sensory Inputs Interact 8
    2. 2. Sensory Congruence Matters 8
    3. 3. Individual Differences 9
    4. 4. Conscious vs. Nonconscious Effects 9
  12. 12 Research Gaps Identified 9
  13. 13 Conclusion: Sensory marketing is a powerful, often unconscious driver of consumer judgment and behavior. Its effects are stronger when multiple senses are aligned, congruent, and integrated into the total consumer experience. 9
    1. Valence: Whether content is positive or negative. 18
    2. Arousal / Activation 18
    3. High-Arousal Emotions → Action: Arousal increases action tendencies, which makes people more likely to share. 18
    4. Low-Arousal Emotions → Inaction: Sadness reduces physiological activation → people become less likely to share. 18
  14. 14 Field Study (Study 1): NYT ~7000 Articles 18
    1. Main Results 18
    2. Effect Sizes (From Figure 2, page 199) 18
  15. 15 Experiments (Studies 2a, 2b, 3): Testing the Mechanism 19
    1. Study 2a – Amusement (High-Arousal Positive) 19
    2. Study 2b – Anger (High-Arousal Negative) 19
    3. Study 3 – Sadness (Low-Arousal Negative) 19
    4. Conclusion of experiments: Arousal mediates the effect of emotion on sharing. 19
  16. 16 Overall Conclusions 19
    1. Physiological Arousal 20
    2. Attentional Narrowing (Easterbrook 1959) 20
    3. Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo) 20
    4. Peripheral Cue Used: Celebrity vs. noncelebrity endorser. 20
    5. Central Cue Used: Strong vs. weak arguments. 20
  17. 17 Methodology: 20
    1. Arousal Manipulation 20
    2. Main Study Design 21
  18. 18 Results 21
    1. 1. Argument Strength Effects 21
    2. 2. Endorser Status Effects 21
    3. 3. No Main Effect of Arousal 21
    4. 4. Purchase Intentions 21
  19. 19 Conclusions 21
  20. 20 Managerial Implications 22
    1. Goal: To test how strongly ad-evoked feelings influence brand attitudes in real-world advertising, and whether these effects depend on product category characteristics (involvement, hedonic/utilitarian, durable vs nondurable, search vs experience). The study uses 1576 consumers and 1070 real TV commercials across 150+ product categories, making it one of the most externally valid studies on emotional advertising. 22
    2. EG1 — Ad-Evoked Feelings Strongly Increase Brand Attitudes 23
    3. EG2 — Effects Are Both Direct and Indirect 23
    4. EG3 — Involvement Does NOT Moderate the Effect 23
    5. EG4 — Hedonic Products Amplify the Effect 23
    6. EG5 — Durability & Search/Experience Do NOT Matter 23
  21. 21 Additional Important Results 23
    1. Creativity ≠ Emotion 23
    2. Cognitive Assessments 23
    3. Large-Scale External Validity 24
  22. 22 Final Conclusions 24
    1. Mood Valence: How pleasant or unpleasant the mood is. 24
    2. Arousal: Subjective feeling of activation:​low (sleepy, calm) → high (energetic, excited). 24
    3. Arousal Regulation: Consumers try to maintain their current arousal level when in a pleasant mood, but try to change their arousal level when in an unpleasant mood. 24
    4. Affect-as-Information (“How do I feel about it?”): Consumers assess which option would make them feel better. If the mood’s source is made salient, this mechanism disappears. 24
  23. 23 Main Predictions (Hypotheses) 24
    1. H1a – Pleasant mood → Arousal Maintenance 24
    2. H1b – Unpleasant mood → Arousal Reversal 25
  24. 24 Methodology 25
  25. 25 Key Results 25
    1. Study 1 — Scent 25
    2. Study 2a — Music 25
    3. Study 2b — Mood Source Made Salient 26
  26. 26 Conclusions 26
  27. 27 Managerial Implications 26
    1. Core Idea: People copy the portion sizes chosen by others — but adjust up or down depending on who the other person is.​Thin people serve as aspirational models, so observers tend to imitate or even exceed their portions.​Obese people function as dissociative models, so observers adjust away from their choices (usually downward). 34
    2. Key Mechanism 34
    3. Theoretical Contributions 35
    4. Public Health & Marketing Implications 35
  28. 28 Core Idea: This review synthesizes the past decade of research on social influence in brick-and-mortar retail, showing that: Both active and passive social influences—from salespeople, other shoppers, and social cues in the environment—shape customers’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. 36
    1. Active Social Influence: Direct verbal or nonverbal interaction with a salesperson or another shopper. (e.g., flattery, mimicry, being touched, friends shopping together) 36
    2. Passive Social Influence: No direct interaction; influence comes from: 36
    3. Social Residue: Cues left by others (e.g., disorganized shelves, damaged packaging) → interpreted as traces of other shoppers. 36
  29. 29 ACTIVE Social Influence (Direct Interaction) 36
    1. 1. Salesperson → Customer (Active Influence) 36
    2. 2. Other Shoppers → Customer (Active Influence) 37
  30. 30 PASSIVE Social Influence (No Direct Interaction) 37
    1. 1. Focal Recipient: The Customer Directly Feels the Effect 37
    2. 2. Indirect Social Information: Observing Others / Social Cues 38
  31. 31 Major Psychological Mechanisms Identified 38
  32. 32 Conclusions 39
    1. Core Idea: Audience size fundamentally changes what people share. 39
    2. Main Findings Across Six Studies 40
    3. Theoretical Contributions 41
    4. Key Results to Remember for Exam 41
    5. Practical Implications 41
  33. 33 Core Idea: Berger argues that word of mouth (WOM) is goal-driven and serves five psychological functions for the sender: 41
  34. 34 The Five Functions & What They Predict People Will Share 42
    1. 1. Impression Management 42
    2. 2. Emotion Regulation 42
    3. 3. Information Acquisition 43
    4. 4. Social Bonding 43
    5. 5. Persuasion 43
  35. 35 Audience & Communication Channel Moderators 44
    1. Audience Characteristics 44
    2. Channel Characteristics 44
  36. 36 Overall Conclusions 44
  37. 37 Exam-Ready Key Takeaways 44
  38. 38 Core Idea: Consumers evaluate products more favorably when attributes are framed positively (“75% lean”) rather than negatively (“25% fat”).​However: This framing effect becomes weaker once consumers actually experience (taste) the product. 54
    1. Attribute Framing: Presenting objectively identical information in a positive vs. negative way (e.g., “75% lean” vs. “25% fat”). 54
    2. Information Integration Theory (Anderson, 1981) 54
    3. Diagnostic vs. Nondiagnostic Experience 54
  39. 39 Main Results 54
    1. 1. Strong Framing Effect Without Tasting 55
    2. 2. Framing Effect Remains but Shrinks After Tasting 55
    3. 3. Framing Effect Is Smallest When Tasting Occurs Before Labeling 55
    4. 4. Taste Is Diagnostic — It Reduces Framing 55
    5. 5. Order (Taste Before vs. After) Does Not Significantly Change the Reduction 55
    6. 6. Taste Most Influences Taste-Relevant Scales 55
    7. ✔ Consumers integrate frame + experience via averaging, not adding 55
    8. ✔ Replicates and extends Hoch & Ha (1986) 56
    9. ✔ Primacy Effects (Discussion, page 5) 56
  40. 40 Core Idea: People often evaluate options differently depending on whether they see them: 56
    1. Joint Evaluation (JE): Two or more options evaluated side by side → direct comparison 56
    2. Separate Evaluation (SE): Each option evaluated alone, without comparison 57
    3. Evaluability: How easy it is to understand the value of an attribute on its own. 57
    4. JE/SE Reversal: Preference order flips between JE and SE. 57
  41. 41 Theoretical Mechanism: Evaluability Hypothesis 57
  42. 42 Evidence From Key Studies in the Paper 57
    1. 1. MBA Admission Example (page 577) 57
    2. 2. The “Stereophile” Salary Example (page 578–579) 57
    3. 3. The “Score Study” (Table 1, page 580) 58
    4. 4. CD Changer Study (page 581–582) 58
    5. 5. Problems from Different Domains (environmental issues, page 584–585) 58
  43. 43 General Conclusions 58
  44. 44 Psychological Mechanisms Identified 59
  45. 45 Overall Takeaway 59
    1. Standard Cost–Benefit Model: Assumes consumers choose the option with the highest value – cost.​Predicts: if both prices drop equally, no switching should occur between products. 59
    2. Zero-Price Model: Assumes that when price = 0, the product’s benefit is perceived as higher (added psychological value α). 59
  46. 46 Main Findings Across Experiments 59
    1. General Pattern (shown repeatedly): 60
  47. 47 Evidence From Experiments 60
    1. Experiment 1 — Hypothetical Choice (p. 746–747) 60
    2. Experiment 2 — Field Purchase at MIT (p. 747–748) 60
    3. Experiment 3 — Cafeteria Checkout (p. 748–749) 60
  48. 48 Testing Psychological Mechanisms (Experiments 4–6) 61
    1. 1. Social Norms? → No 61
    2. 2. Mapping Difficulty? → No 61
    3. 3. Affect? → YES 61
  49. 49 Overall Conclusions 62
  50. 50 Practical Implications 62
  51. 51 Core Idea: Firms increasingly bundle cross-category items (e.g., chocolate + lamp).​Khan & Dhar show: A discount increases purchase likelihood more when it is framed as savings on the hedonic item rather than on the utilitarian item or on the bundle as a whole. 62
    1. Hedonic Products: Pleasure, fun, indulgence (e.g., chocolate, fondue set). 62
    2. Utilitarian Products: Functional, practical, problem-solving (e.g., lamp, textbook). 62
    3. Cross-Category Bundle: A bundle combining a hedonic item + a utilitarian item. 62
    4. Discount Framing: Where the discount is applied: 62
  52. 52 Main Predictions 63
  53. 53 STUDY 1 — Differential Effect of Discount Framing (p. 1092–1094) 63
    1. Design: 63
    2. Key Results (Table 1): 63
    3. Conclusion: 63
  54. 54 STUDY 2 — Mediation by Guilt Reduction (p. 1094–1096) 63
    1. Method: 63
    2. Findings: 64
    3. Conclusion: 64
  55. 55 STUDY 3 — Generalizing to Real Choices (p. 1095–1096) 64
    1. Results: 64
    2. Conclusion: 64
  56. 56 Why Hedonic Discounts Work 64
  57. 57 Boundary Conditions 64
  58. 58 Managerial Implications 65
  59. 59 Exam-Ready Takeaways 65
    1. CORE IDEA: The goal-gradient hypothesis (from behaviorism) states that effort increases as one gets closer to a goal.​This paper tests the hypothesis in human consumer reward programs and finds strong support: 74
    2. Study 1 – Café Reward Program (Field Study) 75
    3. Study 2 – Illusionary Progress (Field & Questionnaire Studies) 75
    4. Study 3 – Music Rating Program (Jaboom) 75
    5. Retention Effects 76
  60. 60 MAIN CONCLUSIONS 76
  61. 61 CORE IDEA: Hotels typically ask guests to reuse towels using environmental appeals (“Help save the environment”). Goldstein et al. show: 76
    1. Descriptive Norms: Information about what most people actually do (p. 473). Motivates behavior by signaling adaptive, effective action. 77
    2. Provincial Norms: Descriptive norms tied to one’s immediate surroundings (e.g., “previous guests in this room reused their towels”; p. 476). 77
    3. Global Norms: Norms tied to a larger, more general reference group (e.g., all hotel guests). 77
  62. 62 EXPERIMENT 1 — Descriptive Norms vs. Standard Environmental Message 77
    1. Design 77
    2. Key Finding 77
    3. Five message conditions 77
    4. Key Findings (Fig. 4 on p. 478) 78
    5. Important Insight 78
    6. 1. Descriptive norms work better than moral/environmental appeals. 78
    7. 2. Provincial norms are especially powerful. 78
    8. 3. Identity meaningfulness is NOT the driver. 78
    9. 4. Situational matching is critical. 78
    10. 1. Generalization of learned associations 78
    11. 2. Heider’s “unit relationship” 79
  63. 63 CORE IDEA: Consumers want hedonic goods (fun, experiential) but feel guilty about indulging. Because hedonic purchases are harder to justify, two predictable patterns emerge: 79
    1. Hedonic Goods: Fun, experiential, pleasure-oriented (e.g., dessert, dinner, Walkman). 79
    2. Utilitarian Goods: Functional, practical, necessity-oriented (e.g., calculator, groceries). 80
    3. SE (Separate Evaluation): Products judged alone → justification needs are lower. 80
    4. JE (Joint Evaluation): Products judged side-by-side → justification needs are higher because the choice implies rejecting one option. 80
    5. Need for Justification: Hedonic consumption feels guilt-inducing → needs reasons to justify. Utilitarian consumption is easier to justify. 80
  64. 64 MAIN PREDICTIONS 80
    1. H1 — Preference Reversal 80
    2. H2 — Time vs Money 80
    3. Results 80
    4. Results 81
    5. Results 81
    6. Results 81
  65. 65 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS 81
  66. 66 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 82
  67. 67 EXAM TAKEAWAYS (SUPER SHORT) 82
  68. 68 CORE IDEA: A prior virtuous act (or even just the intention to act virtuously) gives consumers moral credentials, which then: 82
    1. Licensing Effect: A psychological process where: 82
    2. Self-Concept Boost: Feeling more compassionate, helpful, warm, sympathetic after an altruistic act (Table 1 on page 261). 83
    3. Luxury (Hedonic) vs Necessity (Utilitarian) 83
    4. External Attribution: When the virtuous act is attributed to an external cause (e.g., forced volunteer work), preventing a self-concept boost → no licensing. 83
    5. Results 83
    6. Results 83
    7. Vignette 2 — Concert Ticket (luxury) 84
    8. Results 84
    9. Results 84
    10. Results 85
  69. 69 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 85
  70. 70 CORE IDEA: Female mannequins signal society’s normative beauty standards (thin, flawless, idealized). Consumers with low appearance self-esteem feel threatened by this standard → they restore self-worth by denigrating the product displayed by the mannequin. This effect occurs for both men and women, showing the threat comes from global beauty norms, not from comparing oneself directly to the mannequin. 93
    1. Appearance Self-Esteem: How positively one evaluates their own body and appearance.​Low ASE → greater sensitivity to appearance-related threats. 93
    2. Normative Standard of Beauty: Societal expectations of “ideal” physical appearance. Mannequins serve as inanimate carriers of this standard. 93
    3. Appearance-Related Product: A product that affects how attractive someone looks (e.g., scarf, bikini). These products make the beauty standard more salient. 93
    4. Self-Threat: Feeling that one fails to meet the beauty ideal → motivates defensive reactions (product devaluation). 93
  71. 71 MAIN PREDICTIONS 93
    1. Study 1a — Initial Test (Bikini on Mannequin) 93
    2. Study 1b — Control Condition 93
    3. Study 1c — Moderation + Mediation 94
    4. Study 2 — Self-Affirmation Removes the Threat 94
    5. Study 3a — Reduce Beauty by Adding Flaws 94
    6. Study 3b — Reduce Beauty via Incompleteness 95
  72. 72 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 95
  73. 73 EXAM-READY TAKEAWAYS 96
  74. 74 CORE IDEA: The paper introduces brand prominence—how loudly or quietly a brand displays its logo—and shows that different types of consumers prefer different logo prominence based on their wealth and need for status. The authors develop a 4-group taxonomy (the 4 Ps of luxury) that predicts preferences for loud vs quiet luxury goods and explains why wealthy people sometimes prefer subtle logos and why counterfeits copy loud styles. 96
    1. Brand Prominence: How conspicuously a brand marks its product (e.g., giant Gucci logo = loud; subtle stitching = quiet). 96
    2. Need for Status: Tendency to buy goods for prestige or social signaling. 96
    3. The 4 Ps Consumer Taxonomy (Wealth × Need for Status) 96
  75. 75 MAIN PREDICTIONS 96
  76. 76 EVIDENCE FROM FOUR STUDIES 97
    1. STUDY 1 — Market Data (Handbags, Cars, Men’s Shoes) 97
    2. STUDY 2 — Counterfeit Goods 97
    3. STUDY 3 — Ability to Recognize Subtle Cues 97
    4. STUDY 4 — Preferences + Associative/Dissociative Motives 98
  77. 77 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 98
  78. 78 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 99
  79. 79 EXAM-READY TAKEAWAYS 99
  80. 80 CORE IDEA: Breast cancer campaigns often highlight women’s gender identity (pink ribbon, “Hey woman!”). BUT: Making gender more salient reduces women’s perceived vulnerability to breast cancer. 99
    1. Identity Salience: How strongly a particular identity (here: gender) is activated. 99
    2. Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious self-protective processes (denial, minimization, perceptual defenses). Triggered when a threat targets a central identity. 99
    3. Perceived Vulnerability: Beliefs about one's likelihood of contracting a disease. 99
    4. Self-Affirmation: Boosting one’s general self-worth, which protects against ego threat. 100
  81. 81 THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS vs. FINDINGS 100
  82. 82 STUDY-BY-STUDY SUMMARY 100
    1. Study 1a — Breast Cancer Ad with vs. without Gender Cues 100
    2. Study 1b — Donations to Ovarian Cancer (Behavioral Measure) 100
    3. Study 2a — Perceived Processing Difficulty of Ads 101
    4. Study 2b — Memory for Ads in Different Media Contexts 101
    5. Study 3a — Self-Affirmation Eliminates Defensive Effect 101
    6. Study 3b — Voicing Fear Eliminates Defensive Effect 101
  83. 83 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 102
  84. 84 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 102
  85. 85 EXAM-READY TAKEAWAYS 102
  86. 86 IDENTITY-BASED CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 103
  87. 87 The Five Key Principles of Identity-Based Consumer Behavior 103
    1. 1. Identity Salience Principle 103
    2. 2. Identity Association Principle 103
    3. 3. Identity Relevance Principle 103
    4. 4. Identity Verification Principle 104
    5. 5. Identity Conflict Principle 104
  88. 88 Applications & Broader Implications 104
    1. Globalization 104
    2. Technology 104
    3. Aging & Identity 105
  89. 89 Conclusion 105

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