AQA PSYCHOLOGY A
LEVEL 2021 PAPER 2
MS
1. Outline vthe vway vin vwhich vPavlov vstudied vclassical vconditioning. v[4 vmarks]: vdetail
vof vPavlov's vclassical vconditioning vexperiments vinto vsalivation vreflex vin vdogs
• knowledge vof vPavlovian vconcepts vin vthe vcontext vof vPavlov's vexperiments: vunconditioned vstimulus; vconditioned vstimulus;
v unconditioned vresponse; vconditioned vresponse
• detail vof vPavlovian vtheory v- vlearning vby vassociation; vtemporal vassociation/contiguity.
2. Some v critics v have v said v that v Pavlov's v studies v may v lack v ecological v validity.
vWhat vis vmeant vby vthe vterm vecological vvalidity? v[2 vmarks]: vthe vextent vto vwhich
vbehaviours vobserved vand vrecorded vin va vstudy vreflect vthe vbehaviours vthat vactually voccur vin vthe vreal vworld
3. Jemima vand vLily vare videntical vtwins. vLily vcomplains vto vJemima, v"I vdon't
vunder- vstand vit. vIf vwe vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vhow vcome vyou vhave vclearer
vskin vthan vme vand vare vmuch vbetter vat vnetball?" vJemima vlaughs vand vreplies,
v"Lily, vwe vmay vbe videntical vtwins, vbut vwe vare vnot videntical vpeople."
your vknowledge vof vgenotype vand vphenotype, vexplain vLily's vand vJemima's vcom-
vments. v [4 v marks]: v • vLily vand vJemima vhave videntical vgenotypes v(genotype vrefers vto vthe vgenetic vmake-
up vof van vindividual)
v v
,• Lily vand vJemima vdo vnot vhave videntical vphenotypes v(phenotype vrefers vto vthe vobservable vcharacteristics vof van
vindividual vas va vresult vof vtheir vgenotype vand vtheir venvironment)
• although vLily vand vJemima vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vJemima vmight vpractice vnetball vmore vor vhave vstarted
vlessons vearlier vthan vLily, vthese venvironmental vfactors vmay vmake vher vbetter vat vnetball
• although vLily vand vJemima vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vJemima vmight vhave va vditterent vskin vcare
vroutine/diet/sun vexpo- vsure/etc vthan vLily, vthese venvironmental vfactors vmay vmake vher vskin vclearer vthan
vLily's
4. Lily vand vJemima vhave va vpet vrat, vwhich vusually vhides vin va vcorner vwhen
vthey vtry vto vtake vit vout vbox vof vits vcage. vThey vhave vtried vdifferent vways vto
vstop vthe vrat vhiding, vbut vso vfar vwithout vsuccess.
Use v your v knowledge v of v two v types v of v reinforcement v to v suggest v how v Lily
v and vJemima v could v train v their v rat v to v come v to v the v cage v door v when v they
v open v it. v [6 vmarks]: vpositive vreinforcement v- vwhen vLily/Jemima vopen vthe vcage vdoor vthey vcan vgive vthe vrat
vtreats vlike vchocolate
v v
, drops vfor vcoming vto vthe vcage vdoor vwhen vthey vopen vit. vThis vwill vmake vthe vrat vmore vlikely vto vcome vto vthe
vdoor vthe vnext vtime vthey vopen vthe vcage
• negative vreinforcement v- vhave vsomething vunpleasant vlike vspraying vthe vrat vwith vwater vor vplaying vloud vmusic/alarm
vand vthen vstop vthis vwhen vthe vrat vcomes vto vthe vdoor vso vthat vover vtime vwhen vthey vopen vthe vcage vthe vrat vwill vbe vmore
vlikely v to vcome vto vthe vdoor
• schedules vof vreinforcement v- vapplied vto vtraining vLily vand vJemima's vrat.
5. Compare v the v humanistic v approach v with v the v psychodynamic v approach. v [8
v marks]: v• vdeterminism v- vthe vhumanistic vapproach vassumes vpeople vhave vfree vchoice vover vtheir vbehaviour,
vwhereas vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vthat vbehaviour vis vdetermined vby vunconscious vfactors v(beyond
vconscious vcontrol)
• nature/nurture v- vthe vhumanistic vapproach vassumes vbehaviour vis vattected vby vdesire vto vself-actualise v(nature)
vand vour vexperience vcan vprovide vbarriers vto vthis vthrough vconditions vof vworth vand vvarying vexperience vof vconditional
vpositive vregard v(nurture). vLikewise, vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vbehaviour vis vdriven vby vunconscious vforces,
veg vid/ego/superego vdynamics v(nature) vbut vour vcoping vmechanisms vsuch vas vdefence vmechanisms varise vfrom
vexperience v(nurture)
• methodology v- vboth vare vmuch vless vscientific vthan vother vapproaches v(but vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vthat
vsome vaspects vof vbehaviour vcan vbe vinvestigated vscientifically)
• therapy v- vRogers vbelieved vthat vcounselling v(utilising vunconditional vpositive vregard) vcan vbe vused vto vhelp vclients
vsolve vtheir vproblems, vovercome vconditions vof vworth vand venable vtheir vpotential vfor vself-actualisation, vwhereas
vFreud vbelieved vthat vpsychoanalysis vcan vlead vto vimprovements vin vclients vthrough vpsychotherapy.
6. Describe vthe vstructure vand vfunction vof va vneuron. v[6 vmarks]: v• vNeurons
venable vcommunication vwithin vthe vnervous vsystem
v v
LEVEL 2021 PAPER 2
MS
1. Outline vthe vway vin vwhich vPavlov vstudied vclassical vconditioning. v[4 vmarks]: vdetail
vof vPavlov's vclassical vconditioning vexperiments vinto vsalivation vreflex vin vdogs
• knowledge vof vPavlovian vconcepts vin vthe vcontext vof vPavlov's vexperiments: vunconditioned vstimulus; vconditioned vstimulus;
v unconditioned vresponse; vconditioned vresponse
• detail vof vPavlovian vtheory v- vlearning vby vassociation; vtemporal vassociation/contiguity.
2. Some v critics v have v said v that v Pavlov's v studies v may v lack v ecological v validity.
vWhat vis vmeant vby vthe vterm vecological vvalidity? v[2 vmarks]: vthe vextent vto vwhich
vbehaviours vobserved vand vrecorded vin va vstudy vreflect vthe vbehaviours vthat vactually voccur vin vthe vreal vworld
3. Jemima vand vLily vare videntical vtwins. vLily vcomplains vto vJemima, v"I vdon't
vunder- vstand vit. vIf vwe vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vhow vcome vyou vhave vclearer
vskin vthan vme vand vare vmuch vbetter vat vnetball?" vJemima vlaughs vand vreplies,
v"Lily, vwe vmay vbe videntical vtwins, vbut vwe vare vnot videntical vpeople."
your vknowledge vof vgenotype vand vphenotype, vexplain vLily's vand vJemima's vcom-
vments. v [4 v marks]: v • vLily vand vJemima vhave videntical vgenotypes v(genotype vrefers vto vthe vgenetic vmake-
up vof van vindividual)
v v
,• Lily vand vJemima vdo vnot vhave videntical vphenotypes v(phenotype vrefers vto vthe vobservable vcharacteristics vof van
vindividual vas va vresult vof vtheir vgenotype vand vtheir venvironment)
• although vLily vand vJemima vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vJemima vmight vpractice vnetball vmore vor vhave vstarted
vlessons vearlier vthan vLily, vthese venvironmental vfactors vmay vmake vher vbetter vat vnetball
• although vLily vand vJemima vhave vthe vsame vgenes, vJemima vmight vhave va vditterent vskin vcare
vroutine/diet/sun vexpo- vsure/etc vthan vLily, vthese venvironmental vfactors vmay vmake vher vskin vclearer vthan
vLily's
4. Lily vand vJemima vhave va vpet vrat, vwhich vusually vhides vin va vcorner vwhen
vthey vtry vto vtake vit vout vbox vof vits vcage. vThey vhave vtried vdifferent vways vto
vstop vthe vrat vhiding, vbut vso vfar vwithout vsuccess.
Use v your v knowledge v of v two v types v of v reinforcement v to v suggest v how v Lily
v and vJemima v could v train v their v rat v to v come v to v the v cage v door v when v they
v open v it. v [6 vmarks]: vpositive vreinforcement v- vwhen vLily/Jemima vopen vthe vcage vdoor vthey vcan vgive vthe vrat
vtreats vlike vchocolate
v v
, drops vfor vcoming vto vthe vcage vdoor vwhen vthey vopen vit. vThis vwill vmake vthe vrat vmore vlikely vto vcome vto vthe
vdoor vthe vnext vtime vthey vopen vthe vcage
• negative vreinforcement v- vhave vsomething vunpleasant vlike vspraying vthe vrat vwith vwater vor vplaying vloud vmusic/alarm
vand vthen vstop vthis vwhen vthe vrat vcomes vto vthe vdoor vso vthat vover vtime vwhen vthey vopen vthe vcage vthe vrat vwill vbe vmore
vlikely v to vcome vto vthe vdoor
• schedules vof vreinforcement v- vapplied vto vtraining vLily vand vJemima's vrat.
5. Compare v the v humanistic v approach v with v the v psychodynamic v approach. v [8
v marks]: v• vdeterminism v- vthe vhumanistic vapproach vassumes vpeople vhave vfree vchoice vover vtheir vbehaviour,
vwhereas vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vthat vbehaviour vis vdetermined vby vunconscious vfactors v(beyond
vconscious vcontrol)
• nature/nurture v- vthe vhumanistic vapproach vassumes vbehaviour vis vattected vby vdesire vto vself-actualise v(nature)
vand vour vexperience vcan vprovide vbarriers vto vthis vthrough vconditions vof vworth vand vvarying vexperience vof vconditional
vpositive vregard v(nurture). vLikewise, vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vbehaviour vis vdriven vby vunconscious vforces,
veg vid/ego/superego vdynamics v(nature) vbut vour vcoping vmechanisms vsuch vas vdefence vmechanisms varise vfrom
vexperience v(nurture)
• methodology v- vboth vare vmuch vless vscientific vthan vother vapproaches v(but vthe vpsychodynamic vapproach vassumes vthat
vsome vaspects vof vbehaviour vcan vbe vinvestigated vscientifically)
• therapy v- vRogers vbelieved vthat vcounselling v(utilising vunconditional vpositive vregard) vcan vbe vused vto vhelp vclients
vsolve vtheir vproblems, vovercome vconditions vof vworth vand venable vtheir vpotential vfor vself-actualisation, vwhereas
vFreud vbelieved vthat vpsychoanalysis vcan vlead vto vimprovements vin vclients vthrough vpsychotherapy.
6. Describe vthe vstructure vand vfunction vof va vneuron. v[6 vmarks]: v• vNeurons
venable vcommunication vwithin vthe vnervous vsystem
v v
