PSY:2812 (Research Methods and Data
Analysis in Psych II) Exam #1
What are the four validities? ...ANSWER...1. Construct Validity (extent to which the test
or measure accurately assesses what it is supposed to)
2. Statistical (Conclusion) Validity (extent to which statistical inferences about the
population, based on a sample, are accurate)
3. External Validity (extent to which findings can be generalized to other situations,
people, settings, and measures)
4. Internal Validity (extent to which the causal relationship being tested is not influenced
by other factors or variables)
5. Ethics, practicality, and efficiency are also very important
Ethics ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study follows a system of moral principles to
go by when conducting studies and experiments
Practicality ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study is used for the improvement of
outcome assessment purposes
Efficiency ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study or procedure is inexpensive and
easy to use and takes only a small amount of time to administer and score
The ___ of any study or experiment depends on how much of all four validities
work ...ANSWER...Quality (usefulness)
Are there trade-offs between validities or is it all-or-none? ...ANSWER...There are trade-
offs
Ex: Experiment (internal validity) vs. correlational study (external validity)
There is no such thing as a perfect study or experiment
What is one of the defining traits of a scientific theory? ...ANSWER...It can be
disproved/falsified
,What is said about empirical sciences and data? ...ANSWER...1. Empirical sciences
use both data and logic to test theories
2. A rational science only uses logic
3. It is relatively easy to summarize data
4. The logical rules can rarely be summarized simply
Ex: "A correlation does not imply causation" is true, but highly misleading
The quality or usefulness of any given study or experiment depends on ___
A. Only one of the four types of validity, selected at random
B. Two of the types of validity, selected by a committee of experts
C. Three of the types of validity, with the researcher(s) choosing which to ignore
D. All four of the types of validity ...ANSWER...All four of the types of validity
There are trade-offs between the four types of validity (plus ethics, practicality, and
efficiency). One of the most important implications of these trade-offs is that ___
A. While some studies or experiments might be better than others, there is no such
thing as a "perfect" study or experiment
B. The amount of each validity is either zero or 100%
C. Any given study or experiment is either perfect or useless
D. All research is useless ...ANSWER...While some studies or experiments might be
better than others, there is no such thing as a "perfect" study or experiment
Which of the following is not one of the three criteria for establishing (providing evidence
in support of) a causal claim?
A. Covariation (association)
B. External validity
C. Internal validity
D. Temporal precedence ...ANSWER...External validity
,Assume that you believe that depression (D) causes anxiety (A). To test this claim, you
have measured depression and anxiety (in a large number of participants) at two
different times (1 & 2). You have already conducted the three preliminary tests (i.e., D1-
A1, D1-D2, A1-A2) and all of these required correlations were large and significant. You
are now about to conduct the two critical tests. In order for your data to support your
claim that depression causes anxiety, which of the following needs to be true?
A. The correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety at Time 2 (D1-A2) is
significant and larger than the correlation between anxiety at Time 1 and depression at
Time 2 (A1-D2)
B. The correlation between anxiety at Time 1 and depression at Time 2 (A1-D2) is
significant and larger than the correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety at
Time 2 (D1-A2) ...ANSWER...The correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety
at Time 2 (D1-A2) is significant and larger than the correlation between anxiety at Time
1 and depression at Time 2 (A1-D2)
Modus Tollens ...ANSWER...One of the most important logical rules used in science
(valid argument)
Assume: p → q (if p, then q)
Observe: ¬q (not q)
Conclude: ∴¬p (therefore not p)
p = theory, q = data/results
Way to potentially falsify a scientific theory
Affirming the Consequent ...ANSWER...One of the most common logical errors in
science (invalid argument)
Assume: p → q (if p, then q)
Observe: q (q is verified)
Conclude: ∴p (therefore not p)
We learn little to nothing about p when q is verified
People seem to read "if" as "if and only if" (invalid)
Alternative explanations are often forgotten
The data could have occurred for a different reason (alternative theory)
What are the three types of claims? ...ANSWER...1. Frequency
2. Association
, 3. Causal
Frequency Claim ...ANSWER...Univariate statement of fact
Ex: The mean BDI-II score is 5.14
Association Claim ...ANSWER...Bivariate (or larger) statement of fact
Ex: The correlation between BDI-II and HAM-A is .55
Causal Claim ...ANSWER...Explanation for an observed association
Ex: Depression causes anxiety
Implied Association ...ANSWER...When a conditional frequency claim is provided, many
people infer that the value for some other subset is different
Ex: "The mean BDI score for left-handers is 6.87"
People may question whether the BDI score for right-handers is higher or lower,
assuming that there is an association based on the stated frequency claim
Implied Causation ...ANSWER...When a bivariate statement (association) is made,
many people believe that the association is causal
Ex: "Assertiveness and income are correlated"
People may think that assertiveness causes a higher income or vice versa, even if there
is no scientific support for one variable causing the other
What are the three criteria for causality? ...ANSWER...1. Covariation (association)
2. Temporal precedence
3. Internal validity
Covariation ...ANSWER...The proposed cause and effect must show some relationship
Ex: Have a significant (linear) correlation
Temporal Precedence ...ANSWER...The proposed cause must come before the effect
Internal Validity ...ANSWER...Alternative explanations of the covariation must be ruled
out
Analysis in Psych II) Exam #1
What are the four validities? ...ANSWER...1. Construct Validity (extent to which the test
or measure accurately assesses what it is supposed to)
2. Statistical (Conclusion) Validity (extent to which statistical inferences about the
population, based on a sample, are accurate)
3. External Validity (extent to which findings can be generalized to other situations,
people, settings, and measures)
4. Internal Validity (extent to which the causal relationship being tested is not influenced
by other factors or variables)
5. Ethics, practicality, and efficiency are also very important
Ethics ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study follows a system of moral principles to
go by when conducting studies and experiments
Practicality ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study is used for the improvement of
outcome assessment purposes
Efficiency ...ANSWER...The extent to which a study or procedure is inexpensive and
easy to use and takes only a small amount of time to administer and score
The ___ of any study or experiment depends on how much of all four validities
work ...ANSWER...Quality (usefulness)
Are there trade-offs between validities or is it all-or-none? ...ANSWER...There are trade-
offs
Ex: Experiment (internal validity) vs. correlational study (external validity)
There is no such thing as a perfect study or experiment
What is one of the defining traits of a scientific theory? ...ANSWER...It can be
disproved/falsified
,What is said about empirical sciences and data? ...ANSWER...1. Empirical sciences
use both data and logic to test theories
2. A rational science only uses logic
3. It is relatively easy to summarize data
4. The logical rules can rarely be summarized simply
Ex: "A correlation does not imply causation" is true, but highly misleading
The quality or usefulness of any given study or experiment depends on ___
A. Only one of the four types of validity, selected at random
B. Two of the types of validity, selected by a committee of experts
C. Three of the types of validity, with the researcher(s) choosing which to ignore
D. All four of the types of validity ...ANSWER...All four of the types of validity
There are trade-offs between the four types of validity (plus ethics, practicality, and
efficiency). One of the most important implications of these trade-offs is that ___
A. While some studies or experiments might be better than others, there is no such
thing as a "perfect" study or experiment
B. The amount of each validity is either zero or 100%
C. Any given study or experiment is either perfect or useless
D. All research is useless ...ANSWER...While some studies or experiments might be
better than others, there is no such thing as a "perfect" study or experiment
Which of the following is not one of the three criteria for establishing (providing evidence
in support of) a causal claim?
A. Covariation (association)
B. External validity
C. Internal validity
D. Temporal precedence ...ANSWER...External validity
,Assume that you believe that depression (D) causes anxiety (A). To test this claim, you
have measured depression and anxiety (in a large number of participants) at two
different times (1 & 2). You have already conducted the three preliminary tests (i.e., D1-
A1, D1-D2, A1-A2) and all of these required correlations were large and significant. You
are now about to conduct the two critical tests. In order for your data to support your
claim that depression causes anxiety, which of the following needs to be true?
A. The correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety at Time 2 (D1-A2) is
significant and larger than the correlation between anxiety at Time 1 and depression at
Time 2 (A1-D2)
B. The correlation between anxiety at Time 1 and depression at Time 2 (A1-D2) is
significant and larger than the correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety at
Time 2 (D1-A2) ...ANSWER...The correlation between depression at Time 1 and anxiety
at Time 2 (D1-A2) is significant and larger than the correlation between anxiety at Time
1 and depression at Time 2 (A1-D2)
Modus Tollens ...ANSWER...One of the most important logical rules used in science
(valid argument)
Assume: p → q (if p, then q)
Observe: ¬q (not q)
Conclude: ∴¬p (therefore not p)
p = theory, q = data/results
Way to potentially falsify a scientific theory
Affirming the Consequent ...ANSWER...One of the most common logical errors in
science (invalid argument)
Assume: p → q (if p, then q)
Observe: q (q is verified)
Conclude: ∴p (therefore not p)
We learn little to nothing about p when q is verified
People seem to read "if" as "if and only if" (invalid)
Alternative explanations are often forgotten
The data could have occurred for a different reason (alternative theory)
What are the three types of claims? ...ANSWER...1. Frequency
2. Association
, 3. Causal
Frequency Claim ...ANSWER...Univariate statement of fact
Ex: The mean BDI-II score is 5.14
Association Claim ...ANSWER...Bivariate (or larger) statement of fact
Ex: The correlation between BDI-II and HAM-A is .55
Causal Claim ...ANSWER...Explanation for an observed association
Ex: Depression causes anxiety
Implied Association ...ANSWER...When a conditional frequency claim is provided, many
people infer that the value for some other subset is different
Ex: "The mean BDI score for left-handers is 6.87"
People may question whether the BDI score for right-handers is higher or lower,
assuming that there is an association based on the stated frequency claim
Implied Causation ...ANSWER...When a bivariate statement (association) is made,
many people believe that the association is causal
Ex: "Assertiveness and income are correlated"
People may think that assertiveness causes a higher income or vice versa, even if there
is no scientific support for one variable causing the other
What are the three criteria for causality? ...ANSWER...1. Covariation (association)
2. Temporal precedence
3. Internal validity
Covariation ...ANSWER...The proposed cause and effect must show some relationship
Ex: Have a significant (linear) correlation
Temporal Precedence ...ANSWER...The proposed cause must come before the effect
Internal Validity ...ANSWER...Alternative explanations of the covariation must be ruled
out
