Chapter 1
Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior
- It is relevant to all aspects of human experience
- It can help us solve problems individually and societally
Psychological Science is:
● Critical
○ Curiosity and wonder are combined with healthy skepticism
● Summative
○ Multiple sources of evidence are considered, and conclusions are not absolute
○ Understanding of phenomena grows over time, as new information is presented
Scientific Method
● Is important because we have biases that lead us to make mistakes with intuition
○ Overconfidence Effect & Confirmation Bias
■ The tendency to be overly sure of what we know
■ The tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that
supports what we are already confident we know
Two Ways Early Psychology Developed:
● Scientific Approach: Intellectual endeavors and scientific experimentation at universities
○ Originated with Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the US
■ Studies of perception, thought, behavior
■ Most American psychologists can trace their “lineage” to James
● Clinical Approach: Therapeutic interventions for psychological disorders in medical
settings
○ Originated with Sigmund Freud and Anna Freud in Austria, then England
■ Psychotherapy, psychiatry, clinical practice
Research and Evidence
● Evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true and valid
● Pseudoscience: A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on
valid science/observation or truth
○ I.e. Astrology & Phrenology
Critical Thinking
● 3 Questions
○ What scientific evidence supports this claim?
○ Has this topic been studied empirically?
○ Am I reading someone else’s opinion, or is this information based on facts that are
accepted by unbiased experts?
What are the Goals of Psychology
● Understanding broad patterns of behavior
, ○ Evolutionary perspective
○ Cultural perspective
● Understanding thoughts and feelings
○ Cognitive perspective
○ Emotional perspective
● Understanding roles of body and brain
○ Biological-neuroscience perspective
● Understanding stable and changing patterns of behavior
○ Developmental perspective
■ Studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and
emotionally as they age
○ Personality perspective
■ Study of what makes people act, think, and emote differently from each
other, when in similar social situations
○ Social perspective
■ Study of how different social situations make people respond on particular
ways
○ Clinical perspective
■ The psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatment of
psychological disorders
Positive Psychology: The scientific study of the factors that make people happy, healthy, and
fulfilled
● Positive psychology promotes three components of happiness:
○ Positive emotions and pleasure
○ Engagement with life
○ Living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishment
Chapter 2
Psychology: People in Perspective
Overconfidence Effect: Overconfidence in our own ideas comes about because we sometimes
fail to notice or recall the disconfirming cases that show that our ideas are wrong.
The Scientific Method: Testing Theories with Data
Scientific Method: Instead of using experience or intuition, psychologists test their ideas by
observing other people directly.
Theory-Data Cycle: Involves developing a theory about what people do and collecting data that
are compared with the theory-the data either confirm or disconfirm the theory.
Theory: A set of propositions about what people do and why
,Confirming and Disconfirming Cases in a Driving Study (Study example)
Hands-Free Cell Phone Conversation With Friend In
Conversation With Friend The Passenger Seat
Got into an accident in the 15 (30%) 5 (10%)
simulator These cases confirmed the These cases disconfirm the
hypothesis. The hypothesis hypothesis.
predicts that this number will
be relatively “high.”
Did not get into an accident 35 (70%) 45 (90%)
These are disconfirming cases These are confirming cases.
Replication: Means that the study has been conducted more than once on a new sample of
participants and found the same basic results.
Variables: The Building Blocks of Research
Independent Variable (IV): A variable in a research project that can be manipulated.
Dependent Variable (DV): A variable in a research project that cannot be manipulated but can
be measured.
Operationalizing Measured Variables
Operational Definitions: Specify the exact process for determining the levels or values of each
variable
Operationalizing Measured Variables
Research Question Measured Operationalization Metric Used
Variable(s) of the Measured
Variable
How many people Level of well-being Asking people to rate Number ranging from
are “thriving” in their well-being 1 to 10
this country?
Does taking notes by Degree of learning Showing students a Percentage of
hand lead to better videotaped lecture questions answered
learning? and then testing them correctly
on it
, Are wealthy people Level of wealth Asking people to Dollar amount,
less generous? self-report their ranging from $0 to >
income $100,000 per year
Level of generosity Asking people to give Number of points
points to a stranger (representing money)
awarded, ranging
from 0 to 10
Does feeling wealthy Level of selfishness Counting how many Number of candies,
make people more candies taken ranging from 0 to 20
selfish?
Does talking on a Driving ability Timing how long it Time, ranging from 0
cell phone impair takes people to brake to 500 milliseconds
driving ability? for a hazard in a
driving simulator
Do people act more Aggressive behavior Counting the number Number of times a
aggressively when of shocks given to an button is pressed
intoxicated? opponent in a game
Surveys: Descriptive Research Based on Self-Report
Descriptive Research: Focus on one measured variable at a time with the goal of describing
what is typical
Population of Interest: The largest set of individuals the researcher is trying to understand or
describe
● Sample: A small portion of the population of interest
Random Sampling: Selecting people at random to get the most accurate pinpoints
Descriptive Research Based on Naturalistic Observations and Case Studies
● Naturalistic Observation: Psychologists observe the behavior of animals or people in
their normal, everyday worlds and environments
● Observational Research: A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure
their variable on interest by observing and recording what people are doing
● Case Study: Conducts an in-depth examination of one person’s experience, abilities, and
behavior
Correlational Studies: Measuring Variables to See How They Are Related
● Correlational Research: Researchers measure two (or more) variables in order to
understand the relationship between them
○ Third-Variable Problem: Occurs whenever a correlation observed between two
variables is actually explained by the influence of some variable
Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior
- It is relevant to all aspects of human experience
- It can help us solve problems individually and societally
Psychological Science is:
● Critical
○ Curiosity and wonder are combined with healthy skepticism
● Summative
○ Multiple sources of evidence are considered, and conclusions are not absolute
○ Understanding of phenomena grows over time, as new information is presented
Scientific Method
● Is important because we have biases that lead us to make mistakes with intuition
○ Overconfidence Effect & Confirmation Bias
■ The tendency to be overly sure of what we know
■ The tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that
supports what we are already confident we know
Two Ways Early Psychology Developed:
● Scientific Approach: Intellectual endeavors and scientific experimentation at universities
○ Originated with Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the US
■ Studies of perception, thought, behavior
■ Most American psychologists can trace their “lineage” to James
● Clinical Approach: Therapeutic interventions for psychological disorders in medical
settings
○ Originated with Sigmund Freud and Anna Freud in Austria, then England
■ Psychotherapy, psychiatry, clinical practice
Research and Evidence
● Evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true and valid
● Pseudoscience: A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on
valid science/observation or truth
○ I.e. Astrology & Phrenology
Critical Thinking
● 3 Questions
○ What scientific evidence supports this claim?
○ Has this topic been studied empirically?
○ Am I reading someone else’s opinion, or is this information based on facts that are
accepted by unbiased experts?
What are the Goals of Psychology
● Understanding broad patterns of behavior
, ○ Evolutionary perspective
○ Cultural perspective
● Understanding thoughts and feelings
○ Cognitive perspective
○ Emotional perspective
● Understanding roles of body and brain
○ Biological-neuroscience perspective
● Understanding stable and changing patterns of behavior
○ Developmental perspective
■ Studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and
emotionally as they age
○ Personality perspective
■ Study of what makes people act, think, and emote differently from each
other, when in similar social situations
○ Social perspective
■ Study of how different social situations make people respond on particular
ways
○ Clinical perspective
■ The psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatment of
psychological disorders
Positive Psychology: The scientific study of the factors that make people happy, healthy, and
fulfilled
● Positive psychology promotes three components of happiness:
○ Positive emotions and pleasure
○ Engagement with life
○ Living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishment
Chapter 2
Psychology: People in Perspective
Overconfidence Effect: Overconfidence in our own ideas comes about because we sometimes
fail to notice or recall the disconfirming cases that show that our ideas are wrong.
The Scientific Method: Testing Theories with Data
Scientific Method: Instead of using experience or intuition, psychologists test their ideas by
observing other people directly.
Theory-Data Cycle: Involves developing a theory about what people do and collecting data that
are compared with the theory-the data either confirm or disconfirm the theory.
Theory: A set of propositions about what people do and why
,Confirming and Disconfirming Cases in a Driving Study (Study example)
Hands-Free Cell Phone Conversation With Friend In
Conversation With Friend The Passenger Seat
Got into an accident in the 15 (30%) 5 (10%)
simulator These cases confirmed the These cases disconfirm the
hypothesis. The hypothesis hypothesis.
predicts that this number will
be relatively “high.”
Did not get into an accident 35 (70%) 45 (90%)
These are disconfirming cases These are confirming cases.
Replication: Means that the study has been conducted more than once on a new sample of
participants and found the same basic results.
Variables: The Building Blocks of Research
Independent Variable (IV): A variable in a research project that can be manipulated.
Dependent Variable (DV): A variable in a research project that cannot be manipulated but can
be measured.
Operationalizing Measured Variables
Operational Definitions: Specify the exact process for determining the levels or values of each
variable
Operationalizing Measured Variables
Research Question Measured Operationalization Metric Used
Variable(s) of the Measured
Variable
How many people Level of well-being Asking people to rate Number ranging from
are “thriving” in their well-being 1 to 10
this country?
Does taking notes by Degree of learning Showing students a Percentage of
hand lead to better videotaped lecture questions answered
learning? and then testing them correctly
on it
, Are wealthy people Level of wealth Asking people to Dollar amount,
less generous? self-report their ranging from $0 to >
income $100,000 per year
Level of generosity Asking people to give Number of points
points to a stranger (representing money)
awarded, ranging
from 0 to 10
Does feeling wealthy Level of selfishness Counting how many Number of candies,
make people more candies taken ranging from 0 to 20
selfish?
Does talking on a Driving ability Timing how long it Time, ranging from 0
cell phone impair takes people to brake to 500 milliseconds
driving ability? for a hazard in a
driving simulator
Do people act more Aggressive behavior Counting the number Number of times a
aggressively when of shocks given to an button is pressed
intoxicated? opponent in a game
Surveys: Descriptive Research Based on Self-Report
Descriptive Research: Focus on one measured variable at a time with the goal of describing
what is typical
Population of Interest: The largest set of individuals the researcher is trying to understand or
describe
● Sample: A small portion of the population of interest
Random Sampling: Selecting people at random to get the most accurate pinpoints
Descriptive Research Based on Naturalistic Observations and Case Studies
● Naturalistic Observation: Psychologists observe the behavior of animals or people in
their normal, everyday worlds and environments
● Observational Research: A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure
their variable on interest by observing and recording what people are doing
● Case Study: Conducts an in-depth examination of one person’s experience, abilities, and
behavior
Correlational Studies: Measuring Variables to See How They Are Related
● Correlational Research: Researchers measure two (or more) variables in order to
understand the relationship between them
○ Third-Variable Problem: Occurs whenever a correlation observed between two
variables is actually explained by the influence of some variable
