AQA Sociology A level Paper 2: Beliefs In Society (Topics 1 - 7)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​THEORIES​ ​OF​ ​RELIGION.
•​ ​Sociologists​ ​are​ ​interested​ ​in​ ​how​ ​religion​ ​may​ ​meet​ ​individual​ ​needs.E.G​ ​By​ ​helping​ ​people​ ​to​ ​cope​ ​with
misfortune.
​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​ ​There​ ​are​ ​3​ ​main​ ​ways​ ​in​ ​which​ ​sociologists​ ​define​ ​religion:
​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​•​ ​SUBSTANTIVE​ ​definitions.
​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​•​ ​FUNCTIONAL​​ ​definitions.
​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​•​ ​CONSTRUCTIONIST​​ ​definitions.

​ ​What​ ​Is​ ​Religion?
SUBSTANTIVE​ ​DEFINITIONS:
​ ​•​ ​Focuses​ ​on​ ​the​ ​content​ ​(substance)​ ​of​ ​religious​ ​belief,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​Belief​ ​in​ ​God/The​ ​Supernatural.
​ ​•​ ​E.g​ ​Weber​ ​define​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​a​ ​superior​ ​power.
(Above​ ​nature​ ​+​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​scientifically​ ​explained)
​ ​•​ ​Exclusive​ ​→​ ​Draws​ ​a​ ​clear​ ​line​ ​between​ ​religious​ ​ ​+​ ​non-religious​ ​beliefs.
​ ​•​ ​To​ ​be​ ​a​ ​religion,​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​beliefs​ ​must​ ​include​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God​ ​or​ ​the​ ​supernatural.
ADV DISADV

​ ​•​ ​Suits​ ​to​ ​a​ ​widespread •​ ​Leaves​ ​no​ ​room​ ​for​ ​beliefs​ ​+​ ​practices​ ​that​ ​perform​ ​similar​ ​functions​ ​to​ ​religions,​ ​but
view​ ​of​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​belief​ ​in do​ ​not​ ​involve​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God.​ ​(Buddhism)
God. ​ ​•​ ​Western​ ​bias​ ​-​ ​Exclude​ ​religion​ ​such​ ​as​ ​Buddhism.​ ​which​ ​do​ ​not​ ​have​ ​the​ ​Western
bias​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​a​ ​God.

FUNCTIONAL​ ​DEFINITIONS:
•​ ​Defines​ ​religion​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​social​ ​or​ ​psychological​ ​functions​ ​it​ ​performs​ ​for​ ​individuals/society.
E.g​ ​Durkheim​ ​defines​ ​religion​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​contribution​ ​religion​ ​makes​ ​to​ ​social​ ​integration.​ ​(Rather​ ​than​ ​specific
belief​ ​in​ ​God/Supernatural)
E.g​ ​Yinger​ ​identifies​ ​functions​ ​that​ ​religion​ ​performs​ ​for​ ​individuals,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​answering​ ​Qs​ ​about​ ​the​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​life.
ADV DISADV

•​ ​Inclusive​ ​→​ ​Includes​ ​a​ ​wide​ ​range​ ​of​ ​beliefs​ ​+​ ​practices •​ ​Just​ ​because​ ​an​ ​institution​ ​helps​ ​integrate​ ​individuals
that​ ​perform​ ​certain​ ​functions into​ ​groups,​ ​this​ ​doesn’t​ ​make​ ​it​ ​a​ ​religion.
E.g​ ​Integration​ ​(unity) E.g​ ​Collective​ ​chanting​ ​at​ ​football​ ​matches​ ​might​ ​give
•​ ​Not​ ​bias​ ​against​ ​non-Western​ ​religions​ ​(Buddhism)​ ​→ individuals​ ​a​ ​sense​ ​of​ ​integration,​ ​but​ ​this​ ​doesn’t​ ​mean​ ​it
Doesn’t​ ​specify​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God/the​ ​supernatural. is​ ​a​ ​religion.

CONSTRUCTIVE​ ​DEFINITIONS:​​ ​(Social​ ​Constructionists)
•​ ​Take​ ​an​ ​interpretivist​ ​approach:​ ​Focuses​ ​on​ ​how​ ​members​ ​of​ ​society​ ​themselves​ ​define​ ​religion.
•​ ​Argue​ ​it’s​ ​not​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​single​ ​universal​ ​definition​ ​of​ ​religion,​ ​to​ ​cover​ ​all​ ​cases​ ​→​ ​Different​ ​individuals​ ​+
groups​ ​mean​ ​very​ ​different​ ​things​ ​by​ ​‘religion’.
•​ ​Interested​ ​in​ ​how​ ​definitions​ ​of​ ​religions​ ​are​ ​created,​ ​challenged​ ​+​ ​fought​ ​over.
E.g​ ​Alan​ ​Aldridge​ ​(2013)​ ​shows​ ​how​ ​Scientology​ ​is​ ​a​ ​religion.
Whereas​ ​several​ ​governments​ ​have​ ​denied​ ​Scientology​ ​as​ ​a​ ​legal​ ​status​ ​of​ ​religions​ ​&​ ​sought​ ​to​ ​ban​ ​it.
ADV DISADV

•​ ​TST​ ​definitions​ ​of​ ​religion​ ​can​ ​be​ ​challenged​ ​+​ ​are​ ​influenced​ ​by​ ​who •​ ​Cannot​ ​generalise​ ​about​ ​the​ ​definition
has​ ​power​ ​to​ ​define​ ​the​ ​situation. of​ ​religion​ ​→​ ​People​ ​may​ ​have​ ​widely
•​ ​Does​ ​not​ ​assume​ ​that​ ​religion​ ​always​ ​involves​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God/ differing​ ​views​ ​about​ ​what​ ​counts​ ​as
supernatural,​ ​or​ ​performs​ ​similar​ ​functions​ ​for​ ​everyone​ ​in​ ​all​ ​societies. religion.
•​ ​Allows​ ​social​ ​constructions​ ​to​ ​get​ ​close​ ​to​ ​the​ ​meanings​ ​people
themselves​ ​give​ ​to​ ​religion.

, FUNCTIONALIST​ ​THEORIES​ ​OF​ ​RELIGION.
•​ ​Society​ ​is​ ​a​ ​system​ ​of​ ​interrelated​ ​parts​ ​/​ ​social​ ​institutions
​ ​(economy,​ ​religion,​ ​family)
•​ ​Society​ ​is​ ​like​ ​an​ ​organism,​ ​with​ ​basic​ ​needs​ ​that​ ​it​ ​must​ ​meet​ ​to​ ​survive.
•​ ​These​ ​needs​ ​are​ ​met​ ​by​ ​the​ ​diff​ ​institutions​ ​+​ ​each​ ​perform​ ​certain​ ​function​ ​to​ ​maintain​ ​the​ ​social​ ​system.
•​ ​Society’s​ ​most​ ​basic​ ​need​ ​is​ ​social​ ​order​ ​+​ ​solidarity,​ ​so​ ​its​ ​members​ ​can​ ​cooperate.
•​ ​What​ ​makes​ ​social​ ​order​ ​possible​ ​is​ ​the​ ​existence​ ​of​ ​value​ ​consensus.​ ​(avoid​ ​anomie)
V.C​ ​[A​ ​set​ ​of​ ​shared​ ​N&V​ ​by​ ​which​ ​society’s​ ​members​ ​live]​ ​(existing​ ​norms​ ​becomes​ ​unclear)
Without​ ​this,​ ​ind​ ​would​ ​pursue​ ​their​ ​own​ ​selfish​ ​desires​ ​+​ ​society​ ​would​ ​disintegrate.


DURKHEIM​ ​ON​ ​RELIGION.
The​ ​Sacred​ ​+​ ​The​ ​Profane
•​ ​For​ ​Durkheim​ ​(1915,1962)​ ​the​ ​key​ ​feature​ ​of​ ​religion​ ​was​ ​not​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God/the​ ​Supernatural,​ ​but​ ​a​ ​distinction​ ​between:
The​ ​Sacred Things​ ​set​ ​apart​ ​+​ ​forbidden,​ ​inspire​ ​feelings​ ​of​ ​awe,​ ​fear​ ​&​ ​wonder,​ ​surrounded
by​ ​taboos​ ​&​ ​prohibitions​ ​(restrictions)

The​ ​Profane Things​ ​with​ ​no​ ​special​ ​significance​ ​(ordinary)
•​ ​A​ ​religion​ ​is​ ​never​ ​simply​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​beliefs.​ ​It​ ​also​ ​involves​ ​particular​ ​rituals​ ​in​ ​relation​ ​to​ ​the​ ​sacred.
•​ ​These​ ​rituals​ ​are​ ​collective​​ ​(Performed​ ​by​ ​social​ ​groups)
•​ ​Sacred​ ​things​ ​evoke​ ​such​ ​powerful​ ​feelings​ ​in​ ​believers.
•​ ​For​ ​Durkheim,​ ​this​ ​is​ ​because​ ​these​ ​sacred​ ​things​ ​are​ ​symbols​ ​representing​ ​something​ ​of​ ​great​ ​power.
•​ ​In​ ​Durkheim's​ ​view​ ​it​ ​is​ ​society​ ​itself,​ ​because​ ​society​ ​is​ ​the​ ​only​ ​thing​ ​powerful​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​command​ ​such​ ​feelings.
•​ ​∴​ ​When​ ​they​ ​worship​ ​the​ ​sacred​ ​symbols,​ ​people​ ​are​ ​worshipping​ ​society​ ​itself.
•​ ​Although​ ​sacred​ ​symbols​ ​vary,​ ​they​ ​all​ ​perform​ ​the​ ​essential​ ​function​ ​of​ ​uniting​ ​behaviours​ ​into​ ​a​ ​single​ ​moral​ ​community.


Totemism​ ​(Durkheim)
•​ ​Durkheim​ ​believed​ ​that​ ​the​ ​core​ ​(nature)​ ​of​ ​all​ ​religion​ ​could​ ​be​ ​found​ ​by​ ​studying​ ​its​ ​simplest​ ​form,​ ​in​ ​the​ ​simplest​ ​type​ ​of​ ​society
→​ ​CLAN​ ​SOCIETY.
•​ ​∴​ ​He​ ​used​ ​studies​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Arunta,​ ​an​ ​Aboriginal​ ​Australian​ ​Tribe​ ​with​ ​a​ ​clan​ ​system.
•​ ​Arunta​ ​clans​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​bands​ ​of​ ​kin​ ​(family)​ ​who​ ​come​ ​together​ ​periodically​ ​to​ ​perform​ ​rituals,​ ​involving​ ​worship
of​ ​a​ ​sacred​ ​totem.
•​ ​The​ ​totem​ ​is​ ​the​ ​clan’s​ ​emblem​ ​(symbol)​ ​such​ ​as​ ​an​ ​animal/​ ​plant​ ​that​ ​symbolises​ ​the​ ​clan’s​ ​origins​ ​+​ ​identity.
•​ ​The​ ​sacred​ ​rituals​ ​serve​ ​to​ ​reinforce​ ​(strengthen)​ ​the​ ​group’s​ ​solidarity​ ​+​ ​sense​ ​of​ ​belonging.
•​ ​For​ ​Durkheim,​ ​when​ ​clan​ ​members​ ​worship​ ​their​ ​totemic​ ​animal,​ ​they​ ​are​ ​in​ ​reality​ ​worshipping​ ​society​ ​→​ ​Even​ ​though​ ​the​ ​clans
are​ ​not​ ​aware​ ​of​ ​this.
•​ ​The​ ​totem​ ​inspire​ ​feelings​ ​of​ ​awe​ ​in​ ​the​ ​clan’s​ ​members,​ ​because​ ​the​ ​totem​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​power​ ​of​ ​the​ ​group,​ ​on​ ​which​ ​the
individual​ ​is​ ​dependent​ ​on.

Worsley​ ​(1956):​ ​Evidence​ ​of​ ​totemism​ ​is​ ​unstable.​ T​ here’s​ ​no​ ​sharp​ ​division​ ​between​ ​the​ ​sacred​ ​+​ ​the​ ​profane,​ ​+
that​ ​diff​ ​clans​ ​share​ ​the​ ​same​ ​totems.
Even​ ​if​ ​Durkheim​ ​is​ ​correct​ ​about​ ​totemism,​ ​this​ ​doesn’t​ ​prove​ ​that​ ​he​ ​has​ ​discovered​ ​the​ ​essence​ ​of​ ​all​ ​other
religion.


Collective​ ​Conscience​ ​(Durkheim)
•​ ​In​ ​D’s​ ​view,​ ​the​ ​sacred​ ​symbols​ ​represents​ ​society's​ ​collective​ ​conscience​ ​(conscience​ ​+​ ​consciousness)​ ​or​ ​consciousness.
Collective The​ ​shared​ ​norms,​ ​values,​ ​beliefs​ ​+​ ​knowledge​ ​that​ ​make​ ​cooperation​ ​between​ ​individuals​ ​possible.
Conscience: (Without​ ​these​ ​society​ ​would​ ​disintegrate)
•​ ​Regular​ ​shared​ ​religious​ ​rituals​ ​reinforce​ ​the​ ​collective​ ​conscience​ ​+​ ​maintain​ ​social​ ​integration.
•​ ​These​ ​rituals​ ​binds​ ​individuals​ ​together,​ ​reminding​ ​them​ ​that​ ​they​ ​are​ ​part​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​moral​ ​community.​ ​It​ ​also​ ​reminds​ ​them​ ​of
the​ ​power​ ​of​ ​society​ ​-​ ​Without​ ​which​ ​they​ ​themselves​ ​are​ ​nothing.
•​ ​In​ ​this​ ​case,​ ​religion​ ​also​ ​performs​ ​an​ ​important​ ​function​ ​for​ ​the​ ​individual.
Making​ ​us​ ​feel​ ​part​ ​of​ ​something​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​ourselves.
Religion​ ​strengthens​ ​us​ ​to​ ​face​ ​life’s​ ​trial​ ​+​ ​motivates​ ​us​ ​to​ ​overcome​ ​obstacles.

,Cognitive​ ​Functions​ ​Of​ ​Religion.​ ​(Durkheim)
•​ ​Durkheim​ ​also​ ​sees​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​the​ ​source​ ​of​ ​our​ ​intellectual/cognitive​ ​capacities.
(Our​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​reason​ ​+​ ​think​ ​conceptually)
E.g​​ ​to​ ​think,​ ​we​ ​need​ ​categories,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​time,​ ​space,​ ​cause,​ ​substance​ ​etc.​ ​+
In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​share​ ​our​ ​thought,​ ​we​ ​need​ ​to​ ​use​ ​the​ ​same​ ​categories​ ​as​ ​others.
•​ ​Religion​ ​is​ ​the​ ​origin​ ​of​ ​the​ ​concepts​ ​+​ ​categories​ ​we​ ​need​ ​for​ ​reasoning,​ ​understanding​ ​the​ ​world​ ​+​ ​communicating.
•​ ​In​ ​their​ ​book​ ​-​ ​Primitive​ ​Cla​ssification,​ ​Durkheim​ ​+​ ​Marcel​ ​Mauss​ ​(1903-2009)​ ​argue​ ​that​ ​religion​ ​provides​ ​basic​ ​categories​ ​such
as​ ​time,​ ​space​ ​+​ ​causation.
E.g​​ ​With​ ​ideas​ ​about​ ​a​ ​creator​ ​bringing​ ​word​ ​into​ ​life​ ​at​ ​the​ ​beginning​ ​of​ ​time.
Similarly,​ ​the​ ​division​ ​of​ ​tribes​ ​into​ ​clans,​ ​gives​ ​humans​ ​their​ ​1st​ ​notion​ ​of​ ​classification​ ​(grouping)
•​ ​Thus​ ​religion​ ​is​ ​the​ ​origin​ ​of​ ​human​ ​thought,​ ​reason​ ​+​ ​science.
ADV DISADV

•​ ​Durkheim's •​ ​⬆​ ​diff​ ​to​ ​apply​ ​the​ ​theory​ ​to​ ​a​ ​large​ ​scale​ ​societies​ ​where​ ​2​ ​or​ ​more​ ​religious​ ​communities​ ​may​ ​be​ ​in
theory​ ​may conflict.
apply​ ​better​ ​to •​ ​His​ ​theory​ ​may​ ​explain​ ​social​ ​integration​ ​within​ ​communities,​ ​but​ ​not​ ​the​ ​conflicts​ ​between​ ​them.
small-scale •​ ​Postmodernists​ ​-​ ​Stjepan​ ​Mestrovic(2001)​ ​argue​ ​that​ ​D’s​ ​ideas​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​applied​ ​to​ ​contemporary​ ​society,
societies​ ​with​ ​a cos​ ​⬆​ ​diversity​ ​has​ ​fragmented​ ​the​ ​collective​ ​conscience,​ ​∴​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​a​ ​single​ ​shared​ ​value​ ​system​ ​for
single​ ​religions. religion​ ​to​ ​reinforce.


​ ​PSYCHOLOGICAL​ ​FUNCTIONS.​ ​(Malinowski)
-​ ​Malinowski​ ​agrees​ ​with​ ​Durkheim​ ​that​ ​religion​ ​promotes​ ​solidarity,​ ​but​ ​it​ ​does​ ​so​ ​by​ ​performing​ ​psychological​ ​functions​ ​for
individuals.​ ​+​ ​Help​ ​them​ ​to​ ​cope​ ​with​ ​emotional​ ​stress​​ ​that​ ​would​ ​undermine​ ​social​ ​solidarity.
He​ ​identifies​ ​2​ ​types​ ​of​ ​situation​ ​in​ ​which​ ​religion​ ​performs​ ​this​ ​role:
1)​ ​Where​ ​the​ ​outcome​ ​is​ ​important,​ ​but​ ​is​ ​uncontrollable​ ​+​ ​thus​ ​uncertain.
•​ ​Seen​ ​in​ ​study​ ​of​ ​Trobriand​ ​Islanders​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Western​ ​Pacific.
•​ ​Contrasts​ ​fishing​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Lagoon​ ​+​ ​fishing​ ​in​ ​the​ ​ocean.
LAGOON​ ​FISHING: OCEAN​ ​FISHING:

•​ ​Safe,​ ​uses •​ ​Dangerous​ ​+​ ​uncertain.
predictable​ ​+ •​ ​Supported​ ​by​ ​‘canoe​ ​magic’​ ​(rituals​ ​to​ ​ensure​ ​safe​ ​+​ ​successful​ ​expedition)
successful​ ​method •​ ​Give​ ​people​ ​a​ ​sense​ ​of​ ​control​ ​+​ ​confidence​ ​to​ ​undertake​ ​hazardous​ ​tasks​ ​+​ ​reinforce​ ​social​ ​solidarity.
of​ ​poisoning. •​ ​Malinowski​ ​sees​ ​rituals​ ​serving​ ​as​ ​a​ ​‘God​ ​of​ ​the​ ​gaps’​ ​-​ ​the​ ​rituals​ ​fills​ ​the​ ​gaps​ ​in​ ​human​ ​beings’​ ​control
•​ ​No​ ​ritual. over​ ​the​ ​world​ ​e.g​ ​being​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​control​ ​the​ ​outcome​ ​of​ ​fishing.
2)​ ​At​ ​times​ ​of​ ​life​ ​crisis.
•​ ​Events​ ​such​ ​as​ ​birth,​ ​marriage​ ​+​ ​death​ ​cause​ ​disruptive​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​social​ ​groups.
•​ ​∴​ ​Religion​ ​helps​ ​to​ ​⬇​ ​disruption.
E.G​ ​Funeral​ ​rituals​ ​reinforce​ ​a​ ​feeling​ ​of​ ​solidarity​ ​among​ ​the​ ​survivors​ ​+​ ​the​ ​notion​ ​of​ ​immortality​ ​gives​ ​comfort​ ​to​ ​the​ ​bereaved,​ ​by
denying​ ​the​ ​fact​ ​of​ ​death.
•​ ​Malinowski​ ​argues​ ​death​ ​is​ ​the​ ​main​ ​reason​ ​for​ ​the​ ​existence​ ​of​ ​religious​ ​belief.

PARSONS:​ ​VALUES​ ​+​ ​MEANINGS.​ ​&​ ​Mechanism​ ​Of​ ​Adjustment
-​ ​Agrees​ ​with​ ​Malin​ ​+​ ​sees​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​a​ ​mechanism​ ​of​ ​adjustment​ ​→​ ​Helpings​ ​individuals​ ​to​ ​cope​ ​with​ ​unforeseen​ ​events​ ​+
uncontrollable​ ​outcomes.
-​ ​ALSO​ ​identifies​ ​2​ ​other​ ​essential​ ​functions​ ​that​ ​religion​ ​performs​ ​in​ ​modern​ ​society:
1)​ ​Religion​ ​creates​ ​+​ ​legitimates​ ​society's​ ​central​ ​values​ ​(N+V):
•​ ​By​ ​sacralising​ ​them.
∴​ ​in​ ​USA,​ ​Protestantism​ ​has​ ​sacralised​ ​the​ ​core​ ​American​ ​values​ ​of​ ​individualism,​ ​meritocracy​ ​+​ ​self-discipline.
•​ ​This​ ​serves​ ​to​ ​promote​ ​value​ ​consensus​ ​+​ ​social​ ​solidarity.
2)​ ​Religion​ ​is​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​source​ ​of​ ​meaning:
•​ ​Religion​ ​answers​ ​‘ultimate​ ​Qs’​ ​about​ ​the​ ​human​ ​condition​ ​e.g​ ​‘why​ ​the​ ​good​ ​suffer;.
•​ ​Such​ ​events​ ​make​ ​life​ ​appear​ ​meaningless​ ​+​ ​may​ ​undermine​ ​(damage)​ ​our​ ​commitment​ ​to​ ​society’s​ ​values.
•​ ​Religion​ ​provide​ ​answers​ ​to​ ​such​ ​Q’s.
E.g​ ​by​ ​explaining​ ​‘suffering​ ​as​ ​a​ ​test​ ​of​ ​faith,​ ​that​ ​will​ ​be​ ​rewarded​ ​in​ ​heaven’
•​ ​∴​ ​Religion​ ​enables​ ​people​ ​to​ ​adjust​​ ​to​ ​unfavourable​ ​events,​ ​which​ ​helps​ ​to​ ​maintain​ ​society

, ​ ​ ​CIVIL​ ​RELIGION.​ ​(Bellah)​ ​Neo-functionalists
​ ​-​ ​Bellah​ ​(1991;2013)​ ​interested​ ​how​ ​religion​ ​unifies​ ​society.
​ ​-​ ​Especially​ ​in​ ​a​ ​multi-faith​ ​society.​ ​E.g​ ​AMERICA.
​ ​-​ ​What​ ​unifies​ ​American​ ​society​ ​is...
CIVIL​ ​RELIGION:​ A ​ ​ ​belief​ ​system​ ​that​ ​attaches​ ​sacred​ ​qualities​ ​to​ ​society​ ​itself.
•​ ​In​ ​the​ ​American​ ​case,​ ​civil​ ​religion​ ​is​ ​a​ ​case​ ​in​ ​Americanism​ ​(The​ ​American​ ​way​ ​of​ ​life)
•​ ​Civil​ ​religion​ ​integrates​ ​society​ ​in​ ​a​ ​way​ ​that​ ​American​ ​churches​ ​cannot.
•​ ​American​ ​C.R​ ​involves​ ​loyalty​ ​to​ ​the​ ​nation​ ​state​ ​+​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God,​ ​both​ ​of​ ​which​ ​are​ ​equated​ ​with​ ​being​ ​a​ ​true​ ​American.
•​ ​It​ ​is​ ​expressed​ ​in​ ​various​ ​ritual,​ ​symbols​ ​+​ ​beliefs​ ​e.g…
#​ ​The​ ​Pledge​ ​Of​ ​Allegiance​ ​To​ ​The​ ​Flag.
#​ ​Singing​ ​The​ ​National​ ​Anthem.
•​ ​However,​ ​this​ ​is​ ​not​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​Jewish,​ ​Protestant​ ​or​ ​Catholic​ ​God,​ ​but​ ​rather​ ​an​ ​‘American’​ ​God.
↳​ ​It​ ​centralises​ ​the​ ​American​ ​way​ ​of​ ​life​ ​+​ ​binds​ ​together​ ​Americans​ ​from​ ​many​ ​different​ ​ethnic​ ​+​ ​religious​ ​backgrounds.
Functional​ ​Alternatives:
•​ ​Functional​ ​alternatives/functional​ ​equivalents​ ​to​ ​religion​ ​are​ ​non-religious​ ​beliefs​ ​+​ ​practices​ ​that​ ​perform​ ​similar​ ​functions​ ​to
those​ ​of​ ​organised​ ​religion.​ ​E.g​ ​reinforcing​ ​shared​ ​values​ ​or​ ​maintaining​ ​cohesion.
•​ ​Bellah​ ​argues​ ​that​ ​even​ ​though​ ​America​ ​C.R​ ​involves​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​God,​ ​this​ ​does​ ​not​ ​have​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​case.
•​ ​Some​ ​other​ ​belief​ ​system​ ​could​ ​perform​ ​the​ ​same​ ​functions.
E.g​ ​Nazi​ ​Germany​ ​+​ ​The​ ​Soviet​ ​Union​ ​had​ ​non-religious​ ​political​ ​beliefs​ ​+​ ​rituals​ ​which​ ​they​ ​sought​ ​to​ ​unite​ ​society.
Issues​ ​→​ ​Like​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​definitions​ ​of​ ​religion,​ ​it​ ​ignores​ ​what​ ​makes​ ​religion​ ​distinctive​ ​+​ ​different.
Overall​ ​Evaluation​ ​Of​ ​Functionalism.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

•​ ​Emphasises​ ​the​ ​social​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​religion​ ​+ •​ ​Too​ ​happy​ ​+​ ​content​ ​with​ ​the​ ​roles​ ​it​ ​performs​ ​in​ ​society.
the​ ​+ve​ ​functions​ ​it​ ​performs •​ ​Neglects​ ​-ve​ a​ spects​ ​→​ ​Religion​ ​as​ ​a​ ​source​ ​of​ ​oppression​ ​of​ ​the​ ​poor/women
•​ ​The​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​Civil​ ​Religion​ ​overcomes​ ​the •​ ​Ignores​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​a​ ​source​ ​of​ ​division​ ​+​ ​conflict,​ ​especially​ ​in​ ​modern​ ​societies
problem​ ​of​ ​religious​ ​pluralism,​ ​by​ ​arguing where​ ​there​ ​is​ ​more​ ​than​ ​1​ ​religion​ ​e.g​ ​N.Ireland
that​ ​societies​ ​may​ ​still​ ​have​ ​a​ ​belief​ ​system •​ ​Where​ ​there​ ​is​ ​religious​ ​pluralism,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​hard​ ​to​ ​see​ ​how​ ​religion​ ​can​ ​unite
shared​ ​by​ ​everyone.​ ​But.. people​ ​+​ ​promotes​ ​integration.
↳​ ​↳​ ​↳​ ​↳​ ​↳​ ​↳ •​ ​C.R​ ​has​ ​been​ ​criticised​ ​as​ ​to​ ​whether​ ​is​ ​it​ ​really​ ​a​ ​religion,​ ​especially​ ​when​ ​it​ ​is
not​ ​based​ ​on​ ​beliefs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​supernatural.

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MARXIST​ ​THEORIES​ ​OF​ ​RELIGION.
-​ ​Sees​ ​all​ ​societies​ ​as​ ​divided​ ​into​ ​2​ ​classes.
-​ ​One​ ​of​ ​which​ ​exploits​ ​the​ ​labour​ ​of​ ​the​ ​other.
-​ ​In​ ​modern​ ​capitalist​ ​society​ ​its​ ​the​ ​capitalist​ ​class,​ ​who​ ​own​ ​the​ ​M​ ​of​ ​P​ ​exploit​ ​the​ ​w/c.
-​ ​There​ ​is​ ​always​ ​the​ ​potential​ ​for​ ​class​ ​conflict.
-​ ​Marx​ ​predicted​ ​the​ ​w/c​ ​would​ ​become​ ​conscious​ ​of​ ​their​ ​exploitation​ ​+​ ​unite​ ​to​ ​overthrow​ ​capitalism​ ​=​ ​no​ ​more
exploitation​ ​→​ ​Classless​ ​Society
-​ ​Sees​ ​religion​ ​as​ ​a​ ​feature​ ​of​ ​class-divided​ ​society.
-​ ​Argues​ ​religion​ ​would​ ​not​ ​be​ ​needed​ ​in​ ​a​ ​classless​ ​society,​ ​and​ ​religion​ ​would​ ​disappear.

​ ​☁​ ​RELIGION​ ​AS​ ​IDEOLOGY​ ​☁
•​ ​Ideology​​ ​=​ ​A​ ​belief​ ​system​ ​that​ ​distorts​ ​people’s​ ​perception​ ​of​ ​reality​ ​that​ ​serves​ ​the​ ​interests​ ​of​ ​the​ ​ruling​ ​class.
•​ ​The​ ​class​ ​that​ ​controls​ ​the​ ​economic​ ​production​ ​also​ ​controls​ ​the​ ​production​ ​+​ ​distribution​ ​of​ ​ideas​ ​in​ ​society,​ ​through
institutions​ ​e.g​ ​religion,​ ​the​ ​education​ ​system.
•​ ​Religion​ ​as​ ​a​ ​ISA,​ ​used​ ​by​ ​the​ ​ruling​ ​class,​ ​to​ ​legitimate​ ​the​ ​suffering​ ​of​ ​the​ ​poor​ ​as​ ​something​ ​inevitable​ ​+​ ​God-given.
•​ ​Religion​ ​misleads​ ​the​ ​poor​ ​into​ ​believing​ ​that​ ​their​ ​suffering​ ​is​ ​virtuous​ ​(good)​ ​+​ ​they​ ​will​ ​be​ ​rewarded​ ​in​ ​the​ ​afterlife.
E.g​ ​According​ ​to​ ​Christianity..
-​ ​It​ ​is​ ​easier​ ​for​ ​a​ ​camel​ ​to​ ​pass​ ​through​ ​the​ ​eye​ ​of​ ​a​ ​needle,​ ​than​ ​it​ ​is​ ​for​ ​a​ ​rich​ ​man​ ​to​ ​enter​ ​the​ ​kingdom​ ​of​ ​heaven.
•​ ​Such​ ​ideas​ ​create​ ​a​ ​false​ ​class​ ​consciousness.
(​A​ ​distorted​ ​view​ ​of​ ​reality​ ​that​ ​prevents​ ​the​ ​poor​ ​from​ ​acting​ ​to​ ​change​ ​their​ ​situation​)