PSYC 388 Introduction to Counselling Final Exam Notes: Building
Counselling Relationships Units 5, 6, 7, 8 Athabasca 2025-2026
University
UNIT 5: BUILDING COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIPS
Learning Objectives
1. Describe five factors involved in establishing a positive counselling relationship.
● Seriousness of the Presenting Problem
○ Evidence has suggested a relationship b/w initial self reported disturbance level and treatment course
○ Clients reporting higher initial distress take more sessions to reach clinically significant improvement than clients reporting
lower levels of distress
○ Largest gains in improvement occur early in treatment but seriously disturbed individuals benefit from longer term
intervention
○ Clients who are in better shape at the onset of treatment seem to improve the most, in the least amount of time with the
best long term results
● Structure SEE STRUCTURE IN KEY TERMS
● Initiative SEE INITIATIVE IN KEY TERMS
● Physical Setting SEE PHYSICAL SETTING IN KEY TERMS AND PRESSLY AND HEESACKER IN CONCEPTS
● Client Qualities SEE CLIENT QUALITIES
● Counsellor Qualities SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
2. Identify and discuss the possible barriers that may impede the development of a positive counselling process, and identify ways to
overcome each barrier. = the answer above as those factors can affect the counselling relationship for better or for worse
3. outline and evaluate the criteria for judging effective goals for developing a positive counselling relationship.
● Dyer and Vriend outlined 7 specific criteria for judging effective goals in counselling
1. Mutually agreed on by client and counsellor - both parties have to be vested in the goals and be ready to put energy
towards them
2. Specific - If too broad, can never be met
3. Relevant to self-defeating behaviour - many goals to work on but only these types should be pursued
4. Achievement and success oriented - need to be realistic and include intrinsic and extrinsic payoffs for clients
5. Quantifiable and measurable - both client and counsellor should know when goals are achieved. Quantifiable goals are
most easily recognised
6. Behavioural and observable - relates to previous one, effective goals should be seen when achieved
7. Understandable and can be restated clearly - clear communication regarding goals is important - being able to paraphrase
goals in one’s own words is an indication of understanding
I think all of these are important but these criteria don’t acknowledge how counselling is a dynamic and ever-evolving process. Goals
can change depending on the situation/challenge a client is facing and effective goals should be able to accommodate this change.
For example, a client’s goal is to have better work-life balance. However, due to a sudden and unexpected loss of a loved one, their
circumstances change and all they want to/are able to focus on is grieving and coping from their loss. For a counselling relationship
to be effective, it needs to be responsive to the changing needs of the client and this may mean pivoting from previously set goals to
others. Effective goals are also those that take into consideration a client’s subjective experience of the goal and relevant results.
, Though a goal may seem achieved, if the client’s subjective experience differs from what is being observed, that should be taken into
consideration. For example, one’s goal may be to communicate better with their partner and they plan to do so by being honest
about their feelings instead of repressing them. Despite using different strategies to communicate honestly and expressing their
feelings more regularly, if the client still feels that communication is lagging, that should be taken into consideration.
4. Define and give examples of the microskills used to facilitate information gathering and relationship building in a first interview.
Ivey and Ivey: basic attending behaviour and client observation skills + Empathy + Non Verbal and Verbal Behaviour + Door Openers and
Closers
Key Terms
1. accent= highlighting the last few words of the client
2. acknowledgment of non-verbal behaviour = does not interpret the meaning of behaviour, describes body language
3. advanced empathy - SEE EMPATHY
4. advice giving SEE NON HELPFUL INTERVIEW BEHAVIOUR
5. Attentiveness - the amount of verbal and nonverbal behaviour shown to the client
a. VB = communications that show a desire to comprehend or discuss what is important to the client
i. Include probing, requesting clarification, restating and summarizing feelings indicate that the counsellor is focusing
on the person of the client
b. NVB = physically attending behaviours such as smiling, leaning forward, making eye contact, gesturing, and nodding
,6. Attractiveness - SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
7. client qualities
a. Dated acronyms in the profession = DUD, YAVIS, HOUND
b. Counsellors most enjoy working with clients who they think have the potential to change
c. Clients who are psychologically minded (good insight into their own psychological functioning) expect more from
counselling both in terms of process and outcome
d. Physically attractive are perceived as healthiest and responded to more positively than others
i. Talk more and were more spontaneous when compared with other clients
ii. Counsellors are more encouraging to and engaged with them
e. Aging clients and those with disabilities may face indivisible but powerful barriers
f. Counsellors must be aware of this bias and monitor their behavioural reactions when working with attractive clients.
Stereotypes can lead to self fulfilling prophecies
g. Nonverbal communication, body language and cultural influences in these are crucial to understand for counsellor
8. client-initiated interview - when initial interview is requested by client, counsellor is often unsure of the client’s purpose
a. Uncertainty → counsellor anxiety which can be reduced by clients providing background information before their first visit
b. Advantages to completing a history questionnaire before first appointment:
i. Usefulness and reliability
ii. Accuracy - more accurate than when counsellors write them down
iii. Expediency - more because info is provided by clients in writing
iv. Positive experience - providers and respondents are positive in response to history questionnaires
v. Cost savings - reduce counsellor’s time, and cost savings to client
vi. Accountability - useful should a counsellor ever need to face a professional liability issue
vii. Working alliance - clients feel heard and cared about by the therapist even before the meet them
viii. Reduced number of no shows - because initial working alliance is already developing before the first, clients are
more likely to show up for their appointment
ix. Increased focus on process, not content - more time in first few sessions can be focused on actual counselling,
which is about process instead of content which is factual information about the client
x. Professional considerations - The personal functioning questionnaire provides a good glimpse into how well the
client is currently functioning and this helps in assessing their degree of disturbance and whether they are currently
suicidal
9. closed [or closed-ended] question = requires a specific and limited response such as a yes or no. Often begins with the words is, do
or are
a. Generates Good deal of info in a short period of time but no elaboration
10. Confrontation - SEE INITATIVE
11. counsellor-initiated interview - when the first session is requested by the counsellor. Counsellor should initially state his/her reason
for wanting to see the client otherwise the client is kept guessing and tension is created
a. All clients enter counselling with some anxiety and resistance regardless of prior preparation and all counsellors are also a
bit frightened and uncertain when conducting a first interview
b. Uncertain feelings in both may result in seduction or aggression
c. Counsellors can prevent such situations by by exchanging information with clients
d. Multimodal self presentations by the counsellor though difficult may pay off by creating good counsellor-client relationships
i. I.e. visual, auditory, written, spoken and descriptive
12. counsellor qualities
a. Okun and Kantrowitz - 5 imp characteristics that helpers possess = self awareness, honesty, congruence, ability to
communicate and knowledge
b. Strong described 3 that make counsellors initially more influential - perceived expertness, attractiveness and
trustworthiness
c. Accurate self awareness - those in touch with their values, beliefs, thoughts and feelings
i. Likely to have clear perception of their own and clients’ needs, honest with themselves and others
ii. More congruent and build trust simultaneously, more likely to communicate clearly and accurately
d. Honesty - honesty is an important aspect of building a working alliance yet counsellors in training are taught to be polite,
kind and avoidant of conflict
e. Perceived expertness
i. Expertness is the degree to which a counsellor is perceived as knowledgeable and informed about his/her specialty
ii. Those who display evidential cues - certificates and diplomas are usually perceived as more credible than those
who do not and are thus likely to be effective
f. Attractiveness - individuals are more willing to self-disclose to an attractive counsellor than to an unattractive one
i. More attractive also perceived as more trustworthy and expert
, ii. Attractiveness is a function of perceived similarity between a client and counsellor as well as physical features
iii. Counsellors can be attractive by speaking in clear, simple, jargon free sentences and offering appropriate self
disclosure
1. Also by how they greet and maintain eye contact
2. Those who use non verbal cues are seen as more attractive
iv. Preferred attire of counsellor depends on the type of client
1. Undergrad students felt the least anxiety if counsellor was in casual or very casual attire
2. Informally dressed counsellors were perceived as more expert, trustworthy and helpful compared to
formally dressed ones
g. Trustworthiness - is related to the sincerity and consistency of the counsellor. The counsellor is genuinely concerned about
the client and shows it over time by establishing a close relationship
i. Generated through patterns of behaviour that demonstrate care and concern
ii. Many clients test the trustworthiness of the counsellor by requesting information, telling a secret, asking a favour,
inconveniencing the counsellor, deprecating themselves, or questioning the motives and dedication of the
counsellor
1. Essential that counsellor respond to the question of trust rather than the verbal content of the client
iii. Trust with children and adults is built by listening first and allowing children the freedom to express themselves
openly on a verbal or nonverbal level before the counsellor responds
13. culturally sensitive empathy SEE EMPATHY
14. door in the face - SEE INITIATIVE
15. door closers= judgemental or evaluative responses
16. door openers= non-coercive invitations to talk
a. Include inquiries and observations such as what brings you to see me, what would you like to talk about, you look like you
are in a lot of pain tell me about it
b. Unstructured open-ended invitations allow clients to take initiative
17. Empathy - Rogers describes empathy as the counsellor’s ability to enter the client’s phenomenal world, to experience the client’s
world as if it were your own without ever losing the as if quality
a. Involves perception and communication
b. An effective counsellor perceives the cultural frame of reference from which his/her client operates including the client’s
perceptual and cognitive process. This type of sensitivity, if it bridges the cultural gap between the counsellor and client is
known as culturally sensitive empathy
c. The ability to communicate plays a vital role because a counsellor that can’t communicate their understanding is a limited
helper because no one knows of their level of awareness
d. In the initial interview, counsellors must be able to communicate primary empathy - the ability to respond in such a way
that it is apparent to both client and counsellor that the counsellor has understood the client’s major themes
i. Conveyed through non-verbal communication and various verbal responses
e. Advanced empathy is a process of helping a client explore themes, issues, and emotions new to his or her awareness
i. Usually inappropriate for an initial interview because it examines too much material too quickly
ii. Clients must be developmentally ready for counselling to be beneficial
18. equilibrium theory - assumes there is an appropriate amount of intimacy within individuals and if transgressed, the individual will
compensate for it in some non-verbal way (decreasing eye contact moving physically further away)
a. Cultural differences exist in this and if counsellor is unaware, may misinterpret
19. Expertness - SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
20. foot in the door - SEE INITIATIVE
21. Goals = energizing fabric of daily living but are often elusive. Can be unfocused, uncoordinated or unrealistic
a. Unfocused goals are not identified, are too broad or are not prioritized
i. May have to leave these alone because time and expense of chasing them is not as productive as changing
unwanted behaviours
22. Initiative - refers to the motivation to change. Most theories and counsellors assume that clients will be cooperative but some may
have more reservations than others
a. Vriend and Dyer estimate that majority of clients are reluctant to some degree
b. Frustration with reluctant clients may lead to scapegoating: blaming a person when the problem was not entirely his or her
fault.
i. Many counsellors end up blaming themselves
ii. Assuming the role of the client or even a role reversal exercise can help counsellors with this
c. Includes reluctant and resistant clients
d. Counsellors can help clients win the battle for initiative and achieve success in several ways
Counselling Relationships Units 5, 6, 7, 8 Athabasca 2025-2026
University
UNIT 5: BUILDING COUNSELLING RELATIONSHIPS
Learning Objectives
1. Describe five factors involved in establishing a positive counselling relationship.
● Seriousness of the Presenting Problem
○ Evidence has suggested a relationship b/w initial self reported disturbance level and treatment course
○ Clients reporting higher initial distress take more sessions to reach clinically significant improvement than clients reporting
lower levels of distress
○ Largest gains in improvement occur early in treatment but seriously disturbed individuals benefit from longer term
intervention
○ Clients who are in better shape at the onset of treatment seem to improve the most, in the least amount of time with the
best long term results
● Structure SEE STRUCTURE IN KEY TERMS
● Initiative SEE INITIATIVE IN KEY TERMS
● Physical Setting SEE PHYSICAL SETTING IN KEY TERMS AND PRESSLY AND HEESACKER IN CONCEPTS
● Client Qualities SEE CLIENT QUALITIES
● Counsellor Qualities SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
2. Identify and discuss the possible barriers that may impede the development of a positive counselling process, and identify ways to
overcome each barrier. = the answer above as those factors can affect the counselling relationship for better or for worse
3. outline and evaluate the criteria for judging effective goals for developing a positive counselling relationship.
● Dyer and Vriend outlined 7 specific criteria for judging effective goals in counselling
1. Mutually agreed on by client and counsellor - both parties have to be vested in the goals and be ready to put energy
towards them
2. Specific - If too broad, can never be met
3. Relevant to self-defeating behaviour - many goals to work on but only these types should be pursued
4. Achievement and success oriented - need to be realistic and include intrinsic and extrinsic payoffs for clients
5. Quantifiable and measurable - both client and counsellor should know when goals are achieved. Quantifiable goals are
most easily recognised
6. Behavioural and observable - relates to previous one, effective goals should be seen when achieved
7. Understandable and can be restated clearly - clear communication regarding goals is important - being able to paraphrase
goals in one’s own words is an indication of understanding
I think all of these are important but these criteria don’t acknowledge how counselling is a dynamic and ever-evolving process. Goals
can change depending on the situation/challenge a client is facing and effective goals should be able to accommodate this change.
For example, a client’s goal is to have better work-life balance. However, due to a sudden and unexpected loss of a loved one, their
circumstances change and all they want to/are able to focus on is grieving and coping from their loss. For a counselling relationship
to be effective, it needs to be responsive to the changing needs of the client and this may mean pivoting from previously set goals to
others. Effective goals are also those that take into consideration a client’s subjective experience of the goal and relevant results.
, Though a goal may seem achieved, if the client’s subjective experience differs from what is being observed, that should be taken into
consideration. For example, one’s goal may be to communicate better with their partner and they plan to do so by being honest
about their feelings instead of repressing them. Despite using different strategies to communicate honestly and expressing their
feelings more regularly, if the client still feels that communication is lagging, that should be taken into consideration.
4. Define and give examples of the microskills used to facilitate information gathering and relationship building in a first interview.
Ivey and Ivey: basic attending behaviour and client observation skills + Empathy + Non Verbal and Verbal Behaviour + Door Openers and
Closers
Key Terms
1. accent= highlighting the last few words of the client
2. acknowledgment of non-verbal behaviour = does not interpret the meaning of behaviour, describes body language
3. advanced empathy - SEE EMPATHY
4. advice giving SEE NON HELPFUL INTERVIEW BEHAVIOUR
5. Attentiveness - the amount of verbal and nonverbal behaviour shown to the client
a. VB = communications that show a desire to comprehend or discuss what is important to the client
i. Include probing, requesting clarification, restating and summarizing feelings indicate that the counsellor is focusing
on the person of the client
b. NVB = physically attending behaviours such as smiling, leaning forward, making eye contact, gesturing, and nodding
,6. Attractiveness - SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
7. client qualities
a. Dated acronyms in the profession = DUD, YAVIS, HOUND
b. Counsellors most enjoy working with clients who they think have the potential to change
c. Clients who are psychologically minded (good insight into their own psychological functioning) expect more from
counselling both in terms of process and outcome
d. Physically attractive are perceived as healthiest and responded to more positively than others
i. Talk more and were more spontaneous when compared with other clients
ii. Counsellors are more encouraging to and engaged with them
e. Aging clients and those with disabilities may face indivisible but powerful barriers
f. Counsellors must be aware of this bias and monitor their behavioural reactions when working with attractive clients.
Stereotypes can lead to self fulfilling prophecies
g. Nonverbal communication, body language and cultural influences in these are crucial to understand for counsellor
8. client-initiated interview - when initial interview is requested by client, counsellor is often unsure of the client’s purpose
a. Uncertainty → counsellor anxiety which can be reduced by clients providing background information before their first visit
b. Advantages to completing a history questionnaire before first appointment:
i. Usefulness and reliability
ii. Accuracy - more accurate than when counsellors write them down
iii. Expediency - more because info is provided by clients in writing
iv. Positive experience - providers and respondents are positive in response to history questionnaires
v. Cost savings - reduce counsellor’s time, and cost savings to client
vi. Accountability - useful should a counsellor ever need to face a professional liability issue
vii. Working alliance - clients feel heard and cared about by the therapist even before the meet them
viii. Reduced number of no shows - because initial working alliance is already developing before the first, clients are
more likely to show up for their appointment
ix. Increased focus on process, not content - more time in first few sessions can be focused on actual counselling,
which is about process instead of content which is factual information about the client
x. Professional considerations - The personal functioning questionnaire provides a good glimpse into how well the
client is currently functioning and this helps in assessing their degree of disturbance and whether they are currently
suicidal
9. closed [or closed-ended] question = requires a specific and limited response such as a yes or no. Often begins with the words is, do
or are
a. Generates Good deal of info in a short period of time but no elaboration
10. Confrontation - SEE INITATIVE
11. counsellor-initiated interview - when the first session is requested by the counsellor. Counsellor should initially state his/her reason
for wanting to see the client otherwise the client is kept guessing and tension is created
a. All clients enter counselling with some anxiety and resistance regardless of prior preparation and all counsellors are also a
bit frightened and uncertain when conducting a first interview
b. Uncertain feelings in both may result in seduction or aggression
c. Counsellors can prevent such situations by by exchanging information with clients
d. Multimodal self presentations by the counsellor though difficult may pay off by creating good counsellor-client relationships
i. I.e. visual, auditory, written, spoken and descriptive
12. counsellor qualities
a. Okun and Kantrowitz - 5 imp characteristics that helpers possess = self awareness, honesty, congruence, ability to
communicate and knowledge
b. Strong described 3 that make counsellors initially more influential - perceived expertness, attractiveness and
trustworthiness
c. Accurate self awareness - those in touch with their values, beliefs, thoughts and feelings
i. Likely to have clear perception of their own and clients’ needs, honest with themselves and others
ii. More congruent and build trust simultaneously, more likely to communicate clearly and accurately
d. Honesty - honesty is an important aspect of building a working alliance yet counsellors in training are taught to be polite,
kind and avoidant of conflict
e. Perceived expertness
i. Expertness is the degree to which a counsellor is perceived as knowledgeable and informed about his/her specialty
ii. Those who display evidential cues - certificates and diplomas are usually perceived as more credible than those
who do not and are thus likely to be effective
f. Attractiveness - individuals are more willing to self-disclose to an attractive counsellor than to an unattractive one
i. More attractive also perceived as more trustworthy and expert
, ii. Attractiveness is a function of perceived similarity between a client and counsellor as well as physical features
iii. Counsellors can be attractive by speaking in clear, simple, jargon free sentences and offering appropriate self
disclosure
1. Also by how they greet and maintain eye contact
2. Those who use non verbal cues are seen as more attractive
iv. Preferred attire of counsellor depends on the type of client
1. Undergrad students felt the least anxiety if counsellor was in casual or very casual attire
2. Informally dressed counsellors were perceived as more expert, trustworthy and helpful compared to
formally dressed ones
g. Trustworthiness - is related to the sincerity and consistency of the counsellor. The counsellor is genuinely concerned about
the client and shows it over time by establishing a close relationship
i. Generated through patterns of behaviour that demonstrate care and concern
ii. Many clients test the trustworthiness of the counsellor by requesting information, telling a secret, asking a favour,
inconveniencing the counsellor, deprecating themselves, or questioning the motives and dedication of the
counsellor
1. Essential that counsellor respond to the question of trust rather than the verbal content of the client
iii. Trust with children and adults is built by listening first and allowing children the freedom to express themselves
openly on a verbal or nonverbal level before the counsellor responds
13. culturally sensitive empathy SEE EMPATHY
14. door in the face - SEE INITIATIVE
15. door closers= judgemental or evaluative responses
16. door openers= non-coercive invitations to talk
a. Include inquiries and observations such as what brings you to see me, what would you like to talk about, you look like you
are in a lot of pain tell me about it
b. Unstructured open-ended invitations allow clients to take initiative
17. Empathy - Rogers describes empathy as the counsellor’s ability to enter the client’s phenomenal world, to experience the client’s
world as if it were your own without ever losing the as if quality
a. Involves perception and communication
b. An effective counsellor perceives the cultural frame of reference from which his/her client operates including the client’s
perceptual and cognitive process. This type of sensitivity, if it bridges the cultural gap between the counsellor and client is
known as culturally sensitive empathy
c. The ability to communicate plays a vital role because a counsellor that can’t communicate their understanding is a limited
helper because no one knows of their level of awareness
d. In the initial interview, counsellors must be able to communicate primary empathy - the ability to respond in such a way
that it is apparent to both client and counsellor that the counsellor has understood the client’s major themes
i. Conveyed through non-verbal communication and various verbal responses
e. Advanced empathy is a process of helping a client explore themes, issues, and emotions new to his or her awareness
i. Usually inappropriate for an initial interview because it examines too much material too quickly
ii. Clients must be developmentally ready for counselling to be beneficial
18. equilibrium theory - assumes there is an appropriate amount of intimacy within individuals and if transgressed, the individual will
compensate for it in some non-verbal way (decreasing eye contact moving physically further away)
a. Cultural differences exist in this and if counsellor is unaware, may misinterpret
19. Expertness - SEE COUNSELLOR QUALITIES
20. foot in the door - SEE INITIATIVE
21. Goals = energizing fabric of daily living but are often elusive. Can be unfocused, uncoordinated or unrealistic
a. Unfocused goals are not identified, are too broad or are not prioritized
i. May have to leave these alone because time and expense of chasing them is not as productive as changing
unwanted behaviours
22. Initiative - refers to the motivation to change. Most theories and counsellors assume that clients will be cooperative but some may
have more reservations than others
a. Vriend and Dyer estimate that majority of clients are reluctant to some degree
b. Frustration with reluctant clients may lead to scapegoating: blaming a person when the problem was not entirely his or her
fault.
i. Many counsellors end up blaming themselves
ii. Assuming the role of the client or even a role reversal exercise can help counsellors with this
c. Includes reluctant and resistant clients
d. Counsellors can help clients win the battle for initiative and achieve success in several ways
