Econ 2100 Exam 3 with precise detailed answers ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidic Deposition - correct answer✔✔-Linked mainly to stationary sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Occurs when sulfuric and nitric acids mix with other airborne particles and fall to earth as
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
wet or dry deposits
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-These acids arise from the chemical reaction of SO2 and NOx emissions with water vapors
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
and oxidants (oxygen or ozone) in atmosphere
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-SO2 is the more significant contributor
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Major sources are fossil-fueled electricity plants, refineries, and other users of sulfur-
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
containing fuel ||\\//||
-Sulfur found naturally in coal and oil is released during combustion
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidic Deposition Effects - correct answer✔✔Ecological effects
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Localized forest damage ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidification of surface waters ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Health effects ||\\//||
Respiratory problems ||\\//||
Cardiovascular problems ||\\//||
Aesthetic effects ||\\//||
,Visibility impairment ||\\//||
Property effects ||\\//||
Damage to crops ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Damage to buildings ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Controlling Stationary Sources - correct answer✔✔Stationary sources include electric power||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
plants, ||\\//||
chemical plants, steel mills, etc. ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Primary controls in the U.S. are technology-based standards with emissions trading programs
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
added over time ||\\//|| ||\\//||
These controls vary with ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Facility age (new versus existing) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Facility location (PSD versus nonattainment area)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Technology-based Standards Dual-control Approach - correct answer✔✔For new/modified ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
stationary sources (since 1970 CAA) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-EPA-administered stringent limits, New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), are used ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
based on access to new technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
For existing stationary sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-State-administered limits are used to give states control over industries affecting local ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
economies ||\\//||
Both limits are applied uniformly across firms within a given industry category (but can vary
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
across industry categories) ||\\//|| ||\\//||
,-Categories include electric utilities, chemical plants, petroleum refineries, coal mining, etc.
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Setting the Control Technologies - correct answer✔✔PSD areas (more stringent)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-New sources: limits based on best available control technology (BACT)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
most stringent control technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Existing sources: limits based on best available retrofit technology (BART)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Nonattainment areas (less stringent) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-New sources: limits based on lowest achievable emissions rate (LAER)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Existing sources: limits based on reasonably available control technology (RACT)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
least stringent control technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Control Technologies Summary - correct answer✔✔Emissions limits for PSD areas are more
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
stringent than in nonattainment areas ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Limits for New Sources are more stringent than those for Existing Sources within both types
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
of areas
||\\//||
Higher Cost of CAC Methods - correct answer✔✔Standards-based approach is not cost-
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
effective ||\\//||
Most empirical studies show that the cost of using a command-and-control approach is
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
higher than the least-cost method ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Uniform Technology-Based Standards NSPS Are Not Cost-Effective - correct
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
answer✔✔Uniformity disallows cost-effective solution ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Each source within an industry must meet same standard
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
, -Cost-effectiveness requires equal marginal abatement costs (MAC), not equal abatement ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
levels
Mandated abatement technology may not be the least-cost approach ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
New Source Bias Dual Control Approach - correct answer✔✔Existing sources are controlled
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
by states, which have an incentive to set relatively lenient standards to avoid losing firms to
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
other states ||\\//||
In turn, firms have an incentive not to initiate new construction to avoid the more stringent
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
and more costly NSPS ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Result is that the dual control approach perversely discourages construction of new and
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
presumably cleaner-running new facilities ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Emissions Trading - correct answer✔✔For existing sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Bubble policy: plants can measure emissions of a single pollutant as an average of all
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
emission points ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Emissions banking: a source can save emission reduction credits if it cuts emissions more ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
than required by law and can deposit these through a banking program for future use
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
For new/modified sources
||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Netting was devised for use in PSD areas by modified sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
--Ensures that any added emissions from a plant modification must be exactly matched by a ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
reduction from somewhere else within the same plant ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Offset plans were established for use in nonattainment areas by new or modified sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
--Ensure that emissions from a new or modified source are more than countered by the
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
reductions achieved by existing sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidic Deposition - correct answer✔✔-Linked mainly to stationary sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Occurs when sulfuric and nitric acids mix with other airborne particles and fall to earth as
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
wet or dry deposits
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-These acids arise from the chemical reaction of SO2 and NOx emissions with water vapors
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
and oxidants (oxygen or ozone) in atmosphere
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-SO2 is the more significant contributor
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Major sources are fossil-fueled electricity plants, refineries, and other users of sulfur-
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
containing fuel ||\\//||
-Sulfur found naturally in coal and oil is released during combustion
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidic Deposition Effects - correct answer✔✔Ecological effects
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Localized forest damage ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Acidification of surface waters ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Health effects ||\\//||
Respiratory problems ||\\//||
Cardiovascular problems ||\\//||
Aesthetic effects ||\\//||
,Visibility impairment ||\\//||
Property effects ||\\//||
Damage to crops ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Damage to buildings ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Controlling Stationary Sources - correct answer✔✔Stationary sources include electric power||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
plants, ||\\//||
chemical plants, steel mills, etc. ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Primary controls in the U.S. are technology-based standards with emissions trading programs
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
added over time ||\\//|| ||\\//||
These controls vary with ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Facility age (new versus existing) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Facility location (PSD versus nonattainment area)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Technology-based Standards Dual-control Approach - correct answer✔✔For new/modified ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
stationary sources (since 1970 CAA) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-EPA-administered stringent limits, New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), are used ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
based on access to new technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
For existing stationary sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-State-administered limits are used to give states control over industries affecting local ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
economies ||\\//||
Both limits are applied uniformly across firms within a given industry category (but can vary
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
across industry categories) ||\\//|| ||\\//||
,-Categories include electric utilities, chemical plants, petroleum refineries, coal mining, etc.
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Setting the Control Technologies - correct answer✔✔PSD areas (more stringent)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-New sources: limits based on best available control technology (BACT)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
most stringent control technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Existing sources: limits based on best available retrofit technology (BART)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Nonattainment areas (less stringent) ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-New sources: limits based on lowest achievable emissions rate (LAER)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Existing sources: limits based on reasonably available control technology (RACT)
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
least stringent control technology
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Control Technologies Summary - correct answer✔✔Emissions limits for PSD areas are more
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
stringent than in nonattainment areas ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Limits for New Sources are more stringent than those for Existing Sources within both types
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
of areas
||\\//||
Higher Cost of CAC Methods - correct answer✔✔Standards-based approach is not cost-
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
effective ||\\//||
Most empirical studies show that the cost of using a command-and-control approach is
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
higher than the least-cost method ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Uniform Technology-Based Standards NSPS Are Not Cost-Effective - correct
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
answer✔✔Uniformity disallows cost-effective solution ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Each source within an industry must meet same standard
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
, -Cost-effectiveness requires equal marginal abatement costs (MAC), not equal abatement ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
levels
Mandated abatement technology may not be the least-cost approach ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
New Source Bias Dual Control Approach - correct answer✔✔Existing sources are controlled
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
by states, which have an incentive to set relatively lenient standards to avoid losing firms to
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
other states ||\\//||
In turn, firms have an incentive not to initiate new construction to avoid the more stringent
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
and more costly NSPS ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Result is that the dual control approach perversely discourages construction of new and
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
presumably cleaner-running new facilities ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
Emissions Trading - correct answer✔✔For existing sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Bubble policy: plants can measure emissions of a single pollutant as an average of all
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
emission points ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Emissions banking: a source can save emission reduction credits if it cuts emissions more ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
than required by law and can deposit these through a banking program for future use
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
For new/modified sources
||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Netting was devised for use in PSD areas by modified sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
--Ensures that any added emissions from a plant modification must be exactly matched by a ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
reduction from somewhere else within the same plant ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
-Offset plans were established for use in nonattainment areas by new or modified sources
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
--Ensure that emissions from a new or modified source are more than countered by the
||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
reductions achieved by existing sources ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//|| ||\\//||
