Criminology and Justice Exam FLASHCARDS *Q&A* (100% Correct) 2025/2026 |VERIFIED|

1 Criminology and Justice Exam FLASHCARDS *Q&A* (100% Correct) 2025/2026 |VERIFIED| What are the key arguments in favor of *rehabilitation* over *punishment* in the context of contemporary criminal justice, and how does this debate shape criminal justice policy? The rehabilitation model emphasizes the possibility of change in offenders through therapeutic interventions, education, and skill-building. Advocates argue that rehabilitation reduces recidivism, improves societal reintegration, and addresses the root causes of crime. This contrasts with punishment based models that focus on deterrence. The debate shapes policies that either prioritize rehabilitation programs in prisons or focus on harsher sentencing and incapacitation. How do *social bond theory* and *self-control theory* explain the prevention of crime, and what are their key differences in terms of their approach to criminal behavior? Social bond theory posits that individuals who form strong attachments to social institutions like family, education, and community are less likely to engage in criminal behavior. Self-control theory, on the other hand, argues that individuals with low self-control are more prone to criminal acts regardless of their social bonds. The key difference is that social bond theory focuses on external social factors, while self-control theory emphasizes internal personality traits. In what ways does *postmodern criminology* challenge traditional notions of crime, justice, and punishment, particularly in relation to the criminal justice system's treatment of power and knowledge? Postmodern criminology questions the objective truths and universal principles of traditional criminological theories, emphasizing the role of power in shaping definitions of crime and justice. It challenges the legitimacy of the criminal justice system, suggesting that justice is socially constructed and that punishment often serves to reinforce existing power structures rather than deliver true justice. How does *strain theory* explain the relationship between societal expectations and deviant behavior, and what implications does it have for social policy and crime prevention? Strain theory posits that individuals engage in deviant behavior when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means. This results from the disparity between societal expectations and the resources available to different social classes. The theory suggests that addressing inequality and providing accessible opportunities could reduce crime by helping individuals achieve success within the boundaries of the law. 2 What is the significance of *routine activities theory* in understanding the occurrence of crime, and how does it inform crime prevention strategies? Routine activities theory suggests that crime occurs when three factors converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. This theory highlights the importance of altering everyday routines to reduce opportunities for crime, such as improving surveillance, altering environmental designs, and promoting community involvement to enhance security. How do *feminist criminology* and *intersectionality* theory challenge mainstream criminological thought, especially in relation to gender and race in crime and justice? Feminist criminology critiques traditional criminology for neglecting gender and for viewing women as either victims or exceptions. It emphasizes that crime and victimization are often gendered, with women experiencing different forms of criminality and victimization than men. Intersectionality theory builds on this by considering how race, class, gender, and other social identities intersect to influence individuals' experiences within the criminal justice system. In what ways do *economic theories of crime* explain the link between poverty and criminal behavior, and how can policies be designed to address these root causes? Economic theories of crime suggest that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may resort to criminal behavior as a means to achieve financial stability, due to limited access to legitimate opportunities. Policies can address these root causes by focusing on poverty alleviation, improving education and employment opportunities, and creating social safety nets to reduce the financial pressures that drive criminality. How does the concept of *social disorganization* explain the persistence of crime in urban environments, and what interventions can be implemented to combat this issue? Social disorganization theory posits that crime is more prevalent in communities where social institutions (such as family, school, and local organizations) are weak or absent, leading to a lack of social control. Interventions to combat this issue focus on community-based initiatives that strengthen social bonds, such as improving neighborhood cohesion, offering youth programs, and increasing community policing to restore order. What are the major criticisms of *mandatory sentencing* laws, particularly in terms of their impact on racial minorities and their effectiveness in reducing crime? Mandatory sentencing laws require fixed sentences for certain offenses, removing judicial discretion. Critics argue that these laws disproportionately affect racial minorities, as they often target specific crimes more common in minority communities. Additionally, studies show that mandatory sentences do not necessarily reduce crime and may contribute to overcrowded prisons, high recidivism rates, and longer periods of incarceration for minor offenses. Explain how *capital punishment* intersects with the concepts of *justice*, *deterrence*, and *human rights* within contemporary criminology debates. Capital punishment is viewed differently depending on one's stance on justice, deterrence, and human rights. Proponents argue it serves as a deterrent to severe crimes and ensures justice for victims and society. Opponents, however, emphasize the irreversible nature of execution, the potential for wrongful convictions, and its inconsistency with human rights principles, especially the right to life. What is the role of *forensic psychology* in criminal investigations, and how does it contribute to understanding criminal behavior and assisting law enforcement? Forensic psychology plays a crucial role in criminal investigations by applying psychological principles to understand criminal behavior, assess offenders’ mental states, and provide expert testimony in court. It helps law enforcement agencies with offender profiling, understanding the psychological motives behind crimes, and determining the likelihood of reoffending. What are the ethical challenges of using *biological criminology* to explain criminal behavior, and how might it lead to potential stigmatization and discrimination? Biological criminology examines the role of genetics and neurobiology in influencing criminal behavior. Ethical challenges include the risk of determinism, where individuals may be blamed for crimes based on biological factors beyond their control. This approach could lead to stigmatization and discrimination against individuals with certain genetic traits or neurological conditions, disregarding environmental influences on behavior. How do *neoclassical criminology* theories adjust classical approaches to crime and punishment, and what impact do they have on contemporary criminal justice practices? Neoclassical criminology revises classical criminology by accounting for factors such as mental illness, age, and circumstances that may influence criminal behavior. It emphasizes proportionality in punishment, recognizing that some offenders may require different forms of treatment. Neoclassical theories have influenced contemporary criminal justice practices by incorporating rehabilitation and individualized sentencing, rather than relying solely on deterrence. How does *community-oriented policing* differ from traditional policing methods, and what evidence suggests its effectiveness in crime reduction and community trust? 3 Community-oriented policing focuses on building positive relationships between law enforcement and local communities to address crime through collaboration and prevention. Unlike traditional policing, which emphasizes enforcement and deterrence, community-oriented policing encourages problem-solving, trust-building, and proactive community involvement. Evidence suggests it can reduce crime and improve public trust in the police, especially in diverse or underserved areas. What is the role of *victim impact statements* in the sentencing process, and how can they influence judicial decisions in criminal cases? Victim impact statements allow victims or their families to describe the emotional, physical, and f inancial harm caused by a crime, influencing the judge’s sentencing decision. They provide a personal perspective on the crime's consequences, often leading to more severe sentences if the impact on the victim is deemed significant. These statements can also humanize the legal process and offer closure to victims. What are the key limitations of *rehabilitative justice* in the correctional system, and how do these limitations affect recidivism rates? The key limitations of rehabilitative justice in the correctional system include insufficient funding, overcrowded facilities, lack of qualified staff, and failure to address the root causes of criminal behavior. These limitations can hinder rehabilitation efforts, leading to high recidivism rates as offenders may leave prison without adequate support or skills to reintegrate successfully into society. How does *the insanity defense* impact criminal liability, and what challenges do courts face when determining an individual's mental competency to stand trial? The insanity defense allows a defendant to avoid criminal liability if they are found to be suffering from a severe mental illness that impairs their ability to understand the nature of their actions. Courts face challenges in determining mental competency to stand trial due to differing standards of mental illness, expert testimony, and concerns over whether the defendant is truly incapable of understanding the charges against them. What is the significance of *criminogenic risk factors* in predicting criminal behavior, and how can this information be used to inform interventions and prevention strategies? Criminogenic risk factors, such as poverty, substance abuse, peer influence, and family dysfunction, are characteristics associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. Understanding these factors helps inform intervention strategies that target at-risk individuals by addressing underlying causes, providing mental health services, and promoting positive social influences to prevent future criminality. 4 How does *peer influence* contribute to criminal behavior, particularly in youth, and what interventions are effective in mitigating its impact on delinquency? Peer influence plays a significant role in youth delinquency, as adolescents are more likely to engage in criminal behavior when surrounded by peers who condone such behavior. Effective interventions include programs that focus on building self-esteem, enhancing decision-making skills, providing prosocial peer groups, and involving families and communities in prevention efforts. What is the concept of *administrative justice* in the criminal justice system, and how does it differ from criminal justice in terms of process and objectives? Administrative justice involves decision-making by governmental agencies or regulatory bodies regarding compliance with laws or regulations, rather than criminal offenses. It focuses on resolving disputes or enforcing administrative laws, such as regulatory offenses or violations, and differs from criminal justice in that it typically does not involve punitive measures or criminal records. What are the long-term societal implications of *mass incarceration*, and how does it affect minority communities in terms of economic opportunities, family structures, and social mobility? Mass incarceration has long-term societal implications, particularly for minority communities. It often leads to the disruption of family structures, limited economic opportunities for formerly incarcerated individuals, and increased social stigmatization. The cycle of incarceration and lack of support systems contributes to reduced social mobility, exacerbating existing racial and economic inequalities. What is the concept of *criminogenic environments*, and how can urban planning and community development address these environments to prevent crime? Criminogenic environments are areas characterized by factors such as poverty, social disorganization, and inadequate community resources that foster criminal behavior. Urban planning and community development strategies, such as improving housing, increasing green spaces, and promoting community engagement, can address these environments by enhancing social cohesion, reducing opportunities for crime, and providing safer public spaces. How does *the justice reinvestment initiative* aim to reduce incarceration rates and improve public safety, and what challenges does it face in implementation? The justice reinvestment initiative seeks to reduce incarceration rates by reallocating funds from prisons to community-based programs, such as mental health services, drug treatment, and job training. Challenges in implementation include resistance from vested interests, inadequate funding, and difficulties in ensuring that community-based alternatives are effective in reducing recidivism. 5 What role does *ethnography* play in criminological research, and how can it provide insights into the experiences of offenders and victims within the criminal justice system? Ethnography in criminological research involves the in-depth study of individuals and communities within their natural settings. It provides insights into the lived experiences of offenders and victims, offering a nuanced understanding of crime and justice that quantitative methods might miss. Ethnography allows researchers to observe social dynamics, cultural contexts, and the impact of criminal justice policies on everyday lives. What are the implications of *neoliberalism* on criminal justice policies, especially regarding privatization, mass incarceration, and the criminalization of poverty? Neoliberalism emphasizes free markets, reduced government spending, and privatization, which has influenced criminal justice policies by encouraging the privatization of prisons, leading to profit driven incarceration. It also contributes to the criminalization of poverty, as neoliberal policies often neglect social safety nets, leading to harsher penalties for minor infractions and a focus on punitive measures over rehabilitation. How does *the war on drugs* disproportionately impact minority communities, and what are the consequences for public trust in the criminal justice system? The war on drugs disproportionately affects minority communities, leading to higher arrest and incarceration rates among African Americans and Hispanics for drug-related offenses, despite similar rates of drug use across racial groups. The consequences include a breakdown in trust between these communities and law enforcement, as well as long-term social and economic consequences for those affected by the criminalization of drug use. What is the impact of *structural functionalism* on the understanding of crime, and how does it contribute to the development of social policies aimed at crime prevention? Structural functionalism views crime as a normal aspect of society that can serve positive functions, such as promoting social change or reinforcing social cohesion. It argues that crime arises due to imbalances or dysfunctions within social institutions. The theory influences crime prevention policies by encouraging reforms to social structures, such as education, family, and employment systems, to reduce crime and reinforce social integration. How do *critical criminology* theories challenge traditional views of law enforcement and criminal justice, particularly in regard to the treatment of marginalized groups? 6 Critical criminology critiques the traditional justice system by focusing on how laws and their enforcement often reflect the interests of powerful social groups, leading to the oppression and criminalization of marginalized communities. It challenges the notion of neutrality in the criminal justice system, arguing that law enforcement disproportionately targets lower-income, racial, and ethnic minorities, perpetuating social inequalities. In what ways does *labeling theory* explain the creation of deviance, and how does it apply to the criminal justice process in terms of societal reactions to offenders? Labeling theory posits that individuals become deviant as a result of society’s labels and stigmatization. Once labeled as a criminal or deviant, individuals may internalize the label and continue deviant behavior. This process, according to the theory, contributes to recidivism. In the criminal justice system, labeling offenders can create a self-fulfilling prophecy where societal rejection reinforces criminal identity, thus affecting rehabilitation efforts. How does *differential association theory* explain the transmission of criminal behavior, and what implications does this theory have for criminal rehabilitation programs? Differential association theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who endorse criminal values and behaviors. It emphasizes the role of socialization in shaping individuals’ actions. Rehabilitation programs based on this theory focus on altering the social networks and associations that encourage criminal behavior, promoting prosocial connections and values to prevent recidivism. What is the relationship between *criminological positivism* and the development of early forensic techniques, and how does it differ from the classical school of criminology? Criminological positivism is grounded in the belief that criminal behavior is determined by biological, psychological, or social factors, rather than being a result of free will. It led to the development of early forensic techniques such as fingerprinting and psychological profiling to identify the causes of crime. In contrast, the classical school emphasizes rational choice and deterrence, focusing on punishment as a deterrent rather than rehabilitation or the study of underlying causes of crime. How do *restorative justice practices* intersect with *community-based corrections*, and what are the challenges of implementing such approaches within the modern justice system? Restorative justice emphasizes repairing harm through dialogue and reconciliation between offenders and victims. It aligns with community-based corrections by promoting alternatives to incarceration, such as community service and restorative circles. The challenge lies in balancing the needs of victims for justice and closure while providing offenders with opportunities for rehabilitation 7 outside of traditional prison settings, as well as addressing community skepticism about the effectiveness of such programs. What role do *cultural criminology* and the *media* play in shaping public perceptions of crime, and how does this affect criminal justice policies and practices? Cultural criminology examines how crime is represented in media and how these representations influence public perceptions of crime, often sensationalizing or distorting reality. Media portrayals can affect criminal justice policies by creating fear or moral panic, leading to harsher sentencing, the implementation of stricter laws, or the criminalization of behaviors that are not truly representative of the broader crime rate. What are the ethical implications of *predictive policing* methods in the criminal justice system, and how do these technologies intersect with concerns about racial bias and civil liberties? Predictive policing uses data and algorithms to forecast where crimes may occur and who may commit them, raising ethical concerns related to the accuracy and fairness of these predictions. Critics argue that such systems may perpetuate racial bias, as they often rely on historical crime data that disproportionately targets certain racial or ethnic groups. Additionally, these methods raise concerns about civil liberties, as they may lead to invasive surveillance and the profiling of individuals without sufficient evidence of criminal activity. How does the *broken windows theory* inform police strategies, and what criticisms have emerged regarding its application in contemporary urban policing? The broken windows theory suggests that visible signs of disorder, such as broken windows or minor crimes, can encourage more serious crime. It advocates for aggressive policing of minor infractions to prevent larger crimes. However, criticisms of the theory argue that it can lead to over policing in marginalized communities, disproportionately affecting minority populations, and often results in escalating tensions between the police and the public without necessarily reducing major crime rates. What are the major criticisms of the *three strikes law* in terms of its effectiveness in reducing crime and its impact on prison overcrowding and recidivism rates? The three strikes law mandates life sentences for individuals convicted of three or more serious crimes, aiming to deter repeat offenders. Criticisms include its limited effectiveness in reducing crime, as it does not address the root causes of criminal behavior or rehabilitation. Additionally, it contributes to prison overcrowding by sentencing individuals to life for nonviolent offenses, exacerbating the burden on the prison system and failing to reduce recidivism rates effectively. 8 What is the concept of *mens rea* in criminal law, and how does it relate to the determination of criminal responsibility? Mens rea refers to the mental state or intent of a person at the time of committing a crime. It is crucial in determining criminal responsibility, as an individual must have the requisite state of mind to be found guilty of most crimes. Without mens rea, an individual may not be held liable for certain offenses. How does the principle of proportionality apply to sentencing within the criminal justice system? The principle of proportionality holds that the severity of a punishment should be commensurate with the seriousness of the offense committed. It ensures that the punishment is not excessive or unduly lenient, aiming to achieve a fair and just sentencing system. Explain the difference between *juvenile delinquency* and *adult criminal behavior* in the context of criminological theory. Juvenile delinquency refers to illegal or antisocial behavior committed by individuals under the age of 18, often influenced by social, environmental, and developmental factors. Adult criminal behavior, on the other hand, is typically shaped by a more mature set of influences, including personal choice and criminal intent. Criminological theories suggest different causes for each, with juveniles often needing rehabilitative rather than punitive approaches. What is the role of *criminological theory* in the development of crime prevention programs? Criminological theory provides the foundation for understanding the causes and patterns of crime, which can then be applied to design effective crime prevention programs. Theories such as social disorganization, strain theory, and routine activities theory inform policies and interventions aimed at reducing criminal behavior in society. How does the concept of *social control* help explain the relationship between law and deviant behavior? Social control theory posits that societal institutions and norms function to prevent deviant behavior by promoting conformity. This theory suggests that individuals are less likely to engage in criminal acts when they have strong bonds to family, education, and community, which enforce the values and rules of society. What are the differences between *retributive* and *restorative* justice in terms of their impact on criminal offenders and victims? 9 Retributive justice focuses on punishment as a means of retribution for wrongdoing, aiming to ensure that offenders pay for their crimes in proportion to their severity. Restorative justice, however, emphasizes repairing the harm caused by the crime, promoting reconciliation between offenders and victims, and encouraging the offender to take responsibility for their actions. In what ways does *racial profiling* affect the effectiveness of law enforcement, and what are its ethical implications? Racial profiling undermines the legitimacy and effectiveness of law enforcement by focusing on race or ethnicity rather than evidence or behavior. Ethically, it violates principles of fairness and equality, as it discriminates against individuals based on their racial or ethnic background, leading to mistrust and strained community-police relations. Discuss the challenges and ethical considerations surrounding the use of *surveillance technology* in modern criminal justice systems. Surveillance technology raises concerns about privacy rights and potential abuse of power, especially when used excessively or without clear oversight. Ethical challenges include balancing public safety with individual rights, ensuring that surveillance is targeted and justified, and avoiding discriminatory practices or violations of civil liberties. What are the key components of *white-collar crime*, and why is it often perceived differently from other types of crime? White-collar crime involves non-violent crimes typically committed by individuals in positions of trust or authority, such as fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading. It is perceived differently because it often lacks the physical violence associated with street crime, and its perpetrators are sometimes seen as more "respectable," leading to less public outrage and lower rates of prosecution. How does *victimology* contribute to the understanding of crime and the criminal justice process? Victimology is the study of victims and the patterns of victimization, focusing on how and why certain individuals or groups are more likely to be targeted by crime. By understanding the role of the victim, criminologists and policymakers can develop more effective crime prevention strategies, support services for victims, and ensure that the justice system addresses the needs of those affected by crime. For a prosecutor to pursue a felony charge, the victim must decide to press charges. Is the previous statement true or false? False 10 If Celia has been sentenced to 2 years in prison, what type of crime was she most likely convicted of? felony Alex is a prosecutor trying to maximize a defendant's prison time. What level of crime should Alex charge the defendant with? Class A felony After an arrest is made, who has the greatest influence on what crimes a suspect will be charged with? prosecutors mediation Which program brings victims and offenders together to make a shared decision about how to resolve a problem? Which statement(s) accurately describe plea bargains? There is more than one correct answer. Be sure to select all that apply. severity. -They help defendants save money. Which offense is an example of a property crime? Which offense is an example of a violent crime? vandalism assault Theft of which vehicle would be classified as a motor vehicle theft? - They reduce sentence snowmobile Even if no violence occurs, a crime is still considered violent if the perpetrator threatened to use force. Is the previous statement true or false? True First-degree crimes are the most serious and carry the most severe penalties. Is the previous statement true or false? True 11 According to New York state law, which crime would be considered arson in the first degree? setting a fire for insurance money, causing multiple injuries to innocent bystanders Which type of offense involves helping someone commit a crime without participating in the main act? accomplice The legal defense of withdrawal of conspiracy means the accused ended their agreement to participate in the crime and took steps to prevent the crime. Is the previous statement true or false? True Feigned agreement is a legal defense to conspiracy charges and is based on the claim that the accused only pretended they would help commit a crime. Is the previous statement true or false? True To be charged with an inchoate offense, an individual has to demonstrate the intent to commit the crime, even if they don't take substantial steps toward committing that crime. Is the previous statement true or false? False A person who promotes the idea of committing a specific crime, but does not help carry out the crime, can still be charged with aiding and abetting. Is the previous statement true or false? True If a person charged with accomplice liability called the police before the crime was committed, they could use the legal defense of withdrawal. Is the previous statement true or false? True Which element of a crime means "guilty mind" in Latin? mens rea What type of mens rea is demonstrated when a drunk driver causes an accident that injures others? reckless 12 What type of mens rea is the least culpable and is associated with having no intent to harm anyone? negligent Actus reus refers to the criminal act. Is the previous statement true or false? True Which criminal act is an example of an act of omission? child neglect There are only two essential elements of a crime, the actual criminal act and the level of intent. Is the previous statement true or false? False Which statement about crime rates from 1995 through 2015 is most accurate? dropped over this time period. Match each crime survey or program with the best description. Crime rates (NCVS)- victim reported data (NIBRS)- detailed crime data (UCR)- basic crime data Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) data seems to underestimate the true crime rate. Is the previous statement true or false? True How does the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) improve on the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program? It includes all crimes committed during an incident. Based on crime statistics, which group should crime prevention programs target? school-age boys 13