KUBY IMMUNOLOGY FINAL PAPER 2025/2026 QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Secondary Lymphoid Organs - ✔✔Spleen, lymph nodes, and specialized sites in the
gut and other mucosal tissues are sites where the mature antigen-specific lymphocytes
first encounter antigen and begin their differentiation into effector and memory cells.
✔✔Hematopoiesis - ✔✔The process by which HSCs differentiate into mature blood
cells that occurs primarily in the bone marrow.
✔✔Stem Cells - ✔✔Have the ability to regenerate or "self-renew" and the ability to
differentiate into diverse cell types.
✔✔Progenitor Cells - ✔✔Limited self-renewal capacity and become progressively more
committed to a particular blood cell lineage.
✔✔Multipotent Progenitors (MPPs) - ✔✔These cells have a much more limited ability to
self-renew, but proliferate rapidly and can give rise to both lymphoid and myeloid cell
lineages.
✔✔Hemopoietic Stem Cell (HSC) - ✔✔Rare cell type that is self-renewing and
multipotent. Also has the capacity to differentiate and replace blood cells rapidly.
✔✔Myeloid Progenitor Cell - ✔✔Gives rise to red blood cells, platelets, and myeloid
cells (granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and some dendritic cell populations).
✔✔Myeloid Cells - ✔✔Members of the innnate immune system and are the first cells to
respond to infection or other insults.
✔✔Lymphoid Progenitor Cells - ✔✔Gives rise to B and T lymphocytes, innate lymphoid
cells (ILCs), and specific dendritic cell populations.
✔✔Notch1 - ✔✔Induces lymphoid progenitors to develop into T rather than B
lymphocytes.
✔✔GATA-1 - ✔✔Directs myeloid progenitors toward red blood cell (erythroid)
development rather than granulocyte/monocyte lineages.
✔✔Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, and Mast Cells) - ✔✔First
responders during an immune response, have a multilobed nuclei, and mature in the
bone marrow.
,✔✔Neutrophils - ✔✔The most abundant type of white blood cell and the main cellular
component of pus. Once in the infected tissue, they phagocytose bacteria and secrete a
range of proteins that have antimicrobial effects and tissue-remodeling potential.
✔✔Eosinophils - ✔✔Contain granules that stain pink in a standard H&E staining
protocols and contribute to asthma and allergy symptoms. Important in defense against
multicellular parasitic organisms. Migrate from the blood into the tissue spaces and
most abundant in the small intestines.
✔✔Basophils - ✔✔Nonphagocytic granulocytes that contain large granules that stain
blue in a standard H&E staining. Release histamine that increases blood vessel
permeability and smooth muscle activity and allows immune cells access to a site of
infection.
✔✔Mast Cells - ✔✔Released from the bone marrow into the blood as undifferentiated
cells and play a role in combating parasitic worms and contribute to allergies.
✔✔Professional APCs (pAPCs) - ✔✔Form important cellular bridges between the innate
and adaptive immune systems. Secrete proteins that attract and activate other immune
cells, phagocytose pathogens and present their peptide antigens via MHC II and up
regulate co-stimulatory molecules required for optimal activation of helper T cells.
✔✔Dendritic Cells - ✔✔Play a primary role in presenting antigen to naive T
lymphocytes, initiating the adaptive immune response. After maturation, they enter the
blood or lymphatic circulation and migrate to regions containing lymphoid organs, where
they present antigen to circulating T cells.
✔✔Macrophages - ✔✔Phagocytes and are efficient at removing both pathogen and
damaged host cells from a site of infection and act as pAPCs for T lymphocytes.
✔✔Monocytes - ✔✔Regulate inflammatory responses at sites of tissue damage and
infection. Migrate into tissues in response to infection can differentiate into
macrophages.
✔✔Opsonin - ✔✔A molecule that binds an antigen and enhances its recognition and
ingestion by phagocytes.
✔✔Megakaryocytes - ✔✔Large myeloid cells that reside in the bone marrow and give
rise to thousands of platelets.
✔✔Platelets - ✔✔Small cells that do not have a nuclei and circulate in the blood and
participate in the formation of blood clots.
, ✔✔Erythrocytes - ✔✔Anuclear and function primarily in carrying oxygen to cells and
tissues. May also play a direct role in immunity by regulating the clearance of immune
complexes and generating antimicrobial compounds.
✔✔CD2 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule and signal transduction. Not present in B cells.
✔✔CD4 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule that binds to class II MHC molecules; signal
transduction. Only present in T (helper) cells. T cells displaying CD4 generally function
as helper (TH) cells and recognize antigen in complex with MHC class II
✔✔CD8 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule that binds to MHC class 1 molecules; signal
transduction. Only present in T (cytotoxic) cells. Generally function as cytotoxic (TC)
cells and recognize antigen in complex with MHC class I
✔✔Plasma Cells - ✔✔Activated B cells that do not divide and most die within 1 or 2
weeks. Lose expression of surface immunoglobulin and become highly specialized for
secretion of antibody.
✔✔MHC Molecules - ✔✔Major histocompatibility complex.
Genetically diverse glycoproteins found on cell membranes. Form complexes with
antigen allows cells to decorate their surfaces with internal proteins, exposing them to
browsing T cells.
✔✔MHC I Molecules - ✔✔Expressed by nearly all nucleated cells of vertebrate species.
✔✔MHC II Molecules - ✔✔Expressed primarily by pAPCs.
✔✔Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL) - ✔✔Monitors the cells of the body and eliminate
cells that display non-self antigen complexed with MHC class I.
✔✔T Helper 1 (Th1) and T Helper 17 (Th17) - ✔✔Regulate response to intracellular
pathogens
✔✔T Helper 2 (Th2) and T Follicular Helper (Tfh) - ✔✔Regulate response to
extracellular pathogens, such as bacteria and parasitic worms.
✔✔Regulatory T Cell (Treg) - ✔✔Have the ability to limit normal T-cell responses to
pathogens. Contain CD4 and CD25 on their surfaces.
✔✔Natural Killer T Cells (NKT) - ✔✔Recognize protein peptides. After activation they
release cytotoxic granules that kill target cells, but also release large quantities of
cytokines that can both enhances and suppress the immune response.
AND ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Secondary Lymphoid Organs - ✔✔Spleen, lymph nodes, and specialized sites in the
gut and other mucosal tissues are sites where the mature antigen-specific lymphocytes
first encounter antigen and begin their differentiation into effector and memory cells.
✔✔Hematopoiesis - ✔✔The process by which HSCs differentiate into mature blood
cells that occurs primarily in the bone marrow.
✔✔Stem Cells - ✔✔Have the ability to regenerate or "self-renew" and the ability to
differentiate into diverse cell types.
✔✔Progenitor Cells - ✔✔Limited self-renewal capacity and become progressively more
committed to a particular blood cell lineage.
✔✔Multipotent Progenitors (MPPs) - ✔✔These cells have a much more limited ability to
self-renew, but proliferate rapidly and can give rise to both lymphoid and myeloid cell
lineages.
✔✔Hemopoietic Stem Cell (HSC) - ✔✔Rare cell type that is self-renewing and
multipotent. Also has the capacity to differentiate and replace blood cells rapidly.
✔✔Myeloid Progenitor Cell - ✔✔Gives rise to red blood cells, platelets, and myeloid
cells (granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and some dendritic cell populations).
✔✔Myeloid Cells - ✔✔Members of the innnate immune system and are the first cells to
respond to infection or other insults.
✔✔Lymphoid Progenitor Cells - ✔✔Gives rise to B and T lymphocytes, innate lymphoid
cells (ILCs), and specific dendritic cell populations.
✔✔Notch1 - ✔✔Induces lymphoid progenitors to develop into T rather than B
lymphocytes.
✔✔GATA-1 - ✔✔Directs myeloid progenitors toward red blood cell (erythroid)
development rather than granulocyte/monocyte lineages.
✔✔Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, and Mast Cells) - ✔✔First
responders during an immune response, have a multilobed nuclei, and mature in the
bone marrow.
,✔✔Neutrophils - ✔✔The most abundant type of white blood cell and the main cellular
component of pus. Once in the infected tissue, they phagocytose bacteria and secrete a
range of proteins that have antimicrobial effects and tissue-remodeling potential.
✔✔Eosinophils - ✔✔Contain granules that stain pink in a standard H&E staining
protocols and contribute to asthma and allergy symptoms. Important in defense against
multicellular parasitic organisms. Migrate from the blood into the tissue spaces and
most abundant in the small intestines.
✔✔Basophils - ✔✔Nonphagocytic granulocytes that contain large granules that stain
blue in a standard H&E staining. Release histamine that increases blood vessel
permeability and smooth muscle activity and allows immune cells access to a site of
infection.
✔✔Mast Cells - ✔✔Released from the bone marrow into the blood as undifferentiated
cells and play a role in combating parasitic worms and contribute to allergies.
✔✔Professional APCs (pAPCs) - ✔✔Form important cellular bridges between the innate
and adaptive immune systems. Secrete proteins that attract and activate other immune
cells, phagocytose pathogens and present their peptide antigens via MHC II and up
regulate co-stimulatory molecules required for optimal activation of helper T cells.
✔✔Dendritic Cells - ✔✔Play a primary role in presenting antigen to naive T
lymphocytes, initiating the adaptive immune response. After maturation, they enter the
blood or lymphatic circulation and migrate to regions containing lymphoid organs, where
they present antigen to circulating T cells.
✔✔Macrophages - ✔✔Phagocytes and are efficient at removing both pathogen and
damaged host cells from a site of infection and act as pAPCs for T lymphocytes.
✔✔Monocytes - ✔✔Regulate inflammatory responses at sites of tissue damage and
infection. Migrate into tissues in response to infection can differentiate into
macrophages.
✔✔Opsonin - ✔✔A molecule that binds an antigen and enhances its recognition and
ingestion by phagocytes.
✔✔Megakaryocytes - ✔✔Large myeloid cells that reside in the bone marrow and give
rise to thousands of platelets.
✔✔Platelets - ✔✔Small cells that do not have a nuclei and circulate in the blood and
participate in the formation of blood clots.
, ✔✔Erythrocytes - ✔✔Anuclear and function primarily in carrying oxygen to cells and
tissues. May also play a direct role in immunity by regulating the clearance of immune
complexes and generating antimicrobial compounds.
✔✔CD2 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule and signal transduction. Not present in B cells.
✔✔CD4 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule that binds to class II MHC molecules; signal
transduction. Only present in T (helper) cells. T cells displaying CD4 generally function
as helper (TH) cells and recognize antigen in complex with MHC class II
✔✔CD8 - ✔✔Adhesion molecule that binds to MHC class 1 molecules; signal
transduction. Only present in T (cytotoxic) cells. Generally function as cytotoxic (TC)
cells and recognize antigen in complex with MHC class I
✔✔Plasma Cells - ✔✔Activated B cells that do not divide and most die within 1 or 2
weeks. Lose expression of surface immunoglobulin and become highly specialized for
secretion of antibody.
✔✔MHC Molecules - ✔✔Major histocompatibility complex.
Genetically diverse glycoproteins found on cell membranes. Form complexes with
antigen allows cells to decorate their surfaces with internal proteins, exposing them to
browsing T cells.
✔✔MHC I Molecules - ✔✔Expressed by nearly all nucleated cells of vertebrate species.
✔✔MHC II Molecules - ✔✔Expressed primarily by pAPCs.
✔✔Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL) - ✔✔Monitors the cells of the body and eliminate
cells that display non-self antigen complexed with MHC class I.
✔✔T Helper 1 (Th1) and T Helper 17 (Th17) - ✔✔Regulate response to intracellular
pathogens
✔✔T Helper 2 (Th2) and T Follicular Helper (Tfh) - ✔✔Regulate response to
extracellular pathogens, such as bacteria and parasitic worms.
✔✔Regulatory T Cell (Treg) - ✔✔Have the ability to limit normal T-cell responses to
pathogens. Contain CD4 and CD25 on their surfaces.
✔✔Natural Killer T Cells (NKT) - ✔✔Recognize protein peptides. After activation they
release cytotoxic granules that kill target cells, but also release large quantities of
cytokines that can both enhances and suppress the immune response.
