Research Methods
Aims and Hypotheses
Aims
At the start of any research study, the researcher should state the general aim / aims of their
research. When stating their aims, the researcher should include:
- What topic is being studied
- Why the topic is being studied
- What the researcher hopes to achieve from the study
E.g., Tizard’s study of privation through institutionalisation
What topic – privation through institutionalisation
Why studied – To understand the effects of privation through institutionalisation on a child’s social
development
What hope to achieve – Identify which environment is most suitable for institutionalised children
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a testable statement that makes a precise prediction about the outcome of
research.
Every research study should have two hypotheses:
- The null hypothesis
- The alternative/experimental hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference. It states that manipulating the IV will not
affect the DV.
Which one you use out of either an alternative or experimental hypothesis depends on the
research method you will use to test it.
If you are conducting an experiment, it is called the experimental hypothesis
If you are using any other research method (e.g., observation, self-report study), it is called the
alternative hypothesis.
Directional and non-directional hypotheses
There are two ways of writing the alternative/experimental hypothesis: it can either be written as a
directional hypothesis or a non-directional hypothesis.
,A non-directional hypothesis states that manipulating the IV will affect the DV, but it does not
say how it will affect the DV.
A directional hypothesis states how manipulating the IV will affect the DV.
E.g., Sissons study on attitudes to perceived social class (actor stood on Paddington Station and
asked for directions to Hyde Park dressed as either a labourer or a businessman)
- Null hypothesis
“There will be no difference in the willingness of participants to give directions if a confederate is
dressed as a businessman or as a labourer. Any difference is due to chance.”
- Non-directional experimental hypothesis
“There will be a difference in the willingness of participants to give directions if a confederate is
dressed as a businessman or as a labourer.”
- Directional experimental hypothesis
“Participants will be more likely to give directions when asked by a businessman than when they
are asked by a labourer”
Choosing a directional or non-directional hypothesis
What determines the choice of a direction vs a non-directional hypothesis is whether or not there is
existing research in this topic.
If there is no existing research / the researcher is doing pioneering work, they use a non-
directional hypothesis.
Equally, if there is existing research but it is inconsistent, you would again use a non-directional
hypothesis.
If there is existing research and it is consistent / consistently produces similar results the
researcher will use a directional hypothesis.
Rejecting and retaining hypotheses
At the end of a study when the data has been processed and a conclusion has been reached,
researchers reject one hypothesis and retain the other.
The hypothesis that is incorrect is rejected and the hypothesis that is correct is retained.
Writing hypotheses
Firstly, decide if the scenario is testing for a difference or a relationship (could test for an
association between two things e.g. birth order and career choice, but this is unlikely)
If it is testing for a difference, it will be a difference between two conditions in an experiment.
E.g., reaction time after drinking alcohol vs reaction time after drinking no alcohol.
This would be drawn as a bar chart.
,If it’s testing for a relationship, it is testing for a relationship or a correlation between two
variables.
This would be drawn as a scattergraph.
Testing for a difference:
1. The null hypothesis:
“There will be no significant difference in (state the DV from the stem, e.g., reaction time)
between participants who (state condition 1 from the stem, e.g., people who drink alcohol)
and participants who (state condition 2 from the stem, e.g., people who drink no alcohol).
Any difference is due to chance.”
2. The non-directional hypothesis:
“There will be a significant difference in (state the DV from the stem) between participants
who (state condition 1 from the stem) and participants who (state condition 2 from the
stem).”
3. The directional hypothesis:
“Participants who (state condition 1 from the stem, e.g., drink no alcohol) will (verb – DV,
e.g., react quicker) than participants who (state condition 2 from the stem, e.g., drink
alcohol).”
Testing for a relationship:
4. The null hypothesis is:
“There will be no correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem, e.g., stress) and
(state variable 2 from the stem, e.g., illness).”
5. The non-directional hypothesis:
“There will be a correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem) and (state variable 2
from the stem).”
6. The directional hypothesis:
“There will be a positive/negative correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem)
and (state variable 2 from the stem).”
, Flashcards
When a researcher is stating their aims, what 3 - What topic is being studied
things should they include? - Why the topic is being studied
- What the researcher hopes to achieve
from the study
What is a hypothesis? A testable statement that makes a prediction
What two hypotheses should each research - The null hypothesis
study have? - The alternative/experimental
hypothesis
What does the null hypothesis state? That manipulating the IV will not affect the DV
If you are conducting an experiment, will you Experimental hypothesis
use the alternative or experimental hypothesis?
If you are using any research method other than Alternative hypothesis
an experiment, will you use the alternative or
experimental hypothesis?
What is the difference between a non- A non-directional hypothesis states that
directional and a directional hypothesis? manipulating the IV will affect the DV, but a
directional hypothesis states how it will affect
the DV.
If there is no existing research surrounding a Non-directional hypothesis
topic, will the researcher use a directional or
non-directional hypothesis?
If there is existing research surrounding a topic, Non-directional hypothesis
but the findings are inconsistent, will the
researcher use a directional or non-directional
hypothesis?
If there is existing research surrounding a topic Directional hypothesis
with consistent findings, will the researcher use
a directional or non-directional hypothesis?
At the end of a study, which hypothesis is The correct hypothesis is retained, and the
retained, and which one is rejected? incorrect hypothesis is rejected
When writing a hypothesis, what is the first If the scenario is testing for a difference or a
thing to consider? relationship
When writing a hypothesis, how do you know It will be a difference between two conditions in
the scenario is testing for a difference? an experiment
When writing a hypothesis, how do you know It will be a correlation or relationship between
the scenario is testing for a relationship? two variables
Would you draw a difference between two A bar chart
conditions in an experiment as a bar chart or a
scatter graph?
Would you draw a relationship between two A scatter graph
variables as a bar chart or a scatter graph?
What is the writing frame for writing a null “There will be no significant difference in (DV)
hypothesis when testing for a difference? between participants who (condition 1) and
participants who (condition 2). Any difference
is due to chance.”
Aims and Hypotheses
Aims
At the start of any research study, the researcher should state the general aim / aims of their
research. When stating their aims, the researcher should include:
- What topic is being studied
- Why the topic is being studied
- What the researcher hopes to achieve from the study
E.g., Tizard’s study of privation through institutionalisation
What topic – privation through institutionalisation
Why studied – To understand the effects of privation through institutionalisation on a child’s social
development
What hope to achieve – Identify which environment is most suitable for institutionalised children
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a testable statement that makes a precise prediction about the outcome of
research.
Every research study should have two hypotheses:
- The null hypothesis
- The alternative/experimental hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference. It states that manipulating the IV will not
affect the DV.
Which one you use out of either an alternative or experimental hypothesis depends on the
research method you will use to test it.
If you are conducting an experiment, it is called the experimental hypothesis
If you are using any other research method (e.g., observation, self-report study), it is called the
alternative hypothesis.
Directional and non-directional hypotheses
There are two ways of writing the alternative/experimental hypothesis: it can either be written as a
directional hypothesis or a non-directional hypothesis.
,A non-directional hypothesis states that manipulating the IV will affect the DV, but it does not
say how it will affect the DV.
A directional hypothesis states how manipulating the IV will affect the DV.
E.g., Sissons study on attitudes to perceived social class (actor stood on Paddington Station and
asked for directions to Hyde Park dressed as either a labourer or a businessman)
- Null hypothesis
“There will be no difference in the willingness of participants to give directions if a confederate is
dressed as a businessman or as a labourer. Any difference is due to chance.”
- Non-directional experimental hypothesis
“There will be a difference in the willingness of participants to give directions if a confederate is
dressed as a businessman or as a labourer.”
- Directional experimental hypothesis
“Participants will be more likely to give directions when asked by a businessman than when they
are asked by a labourer”
Choosing a directional or non-directional hypothesis
What determines the choice of a direction vs a non-directional hypothesis is whether or not there is
existing research in this topic.
If there is no existing research / the researcher is doing pioneering work, they use a non-
directional hypothesis.
Equally, if there is existing research but it is inconsistent, you would again use a non-directional
hypothesis.
If there is existing research and it is consistent / consistently produces similar results the
researcher will use a directional hypothesis.
Rejecting and retaining hypotheses
At the end of a study when the data has been processed and a conclusion has been reached,
researchers reject one hypothesis and retain the other.
The hypothesis that is incorrect is rejected and the hypothesis that is correct is retained.
Writing hypotheses
Firstly, decide if the scenario is testing for a difference or a relationship (could test for an
association between two things e.g. birth order and career choice, but this is unlikely)
If it is testing for a difference, it will be a difference between two conditions in an experiment.
E.g., reaction time after drinking alcohol vs reaction time after drinking no alcohol.
This would be drawn as a bar chart.
,If it’s testing for a relationship, it is testing for a relationship or a correlation between two
variables.
This would be drawn as a scattergraph.
Testing for a difference:
1. The null hypothesis:
“There will be no significant difference in (state the DV from the stem, e.g., reaction time)
between participants who (state condition 1 from the stem, e.g., people who drink alcohol)
and participants who (state condition 2 from the stem, e.g., people who drink no alcohol).
Any difference is due to chance.”
2. The non-directional hypothesis:
“There will be a significant difference in (state the DV from the stem) between participants
who (state condition 1 from the stem) and participants who (state condition 2 from the
stem).”
3. The directional hypothesis:
“Participants who (state condition 1 from the stem, e.g., drink no alcohol) will (verb – DV,
e.g., react quicker) than participants who (state condition 2 from the stem, e.g., drink
alcohol).”
Testing for a relationship:
4. The null hypothesis is:
“There will be no correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem, e.g., stress) and
(state variable 2 from the stem, e.g., illness).”
5. The non-directional hypothesis:
“There will be a correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem) and (state variable 2
from the stem).”
6. The directional hypothesis:
“There will be a positive/negative correlation between (state variable 1 from the stem)
and (state variable 2 from the stem).”
, Flashcards
When a researcher is stating their aims, what 3 - What topic is being studied
things should they include? - Why the topic is being studied
- What the researcher hopes to achieve
from the study
What is a hypothesis? A testable statement that makes a prediction
What two hypotheses should each research - The null hypothesis
study have? - The alternative/experimental
hypothesis
What does the null hypothesis state? That manipulating the IV will not affect the DV
If you are conducting an experiment, will you Experimental hypothesis
use the alternative or experimental hypothesis?
If you are using any research method other than Alternative hypothesis
an experiment, will you use the alternative or
experimental hypothesis?
What is the difference between a non- A non-directional hypothesis states that
directional and a directional hypothesis? manipulating the IV will affect the DV, but a
directional hypothesis states how it will affect
the DV.
If there is no existing research surrounding a Non-directional hypothesis
topic, will the researcher use a directional or
non-directional hypothesis?
If there is existing research surrounding a topic, Non-directional hypothesis
but the findings are inconsistent, will the
researcher use a directional or non-directional
hypothesis?
If there is existing research surrounding a topic Directional hypothesis
with consistent findings, will the researcher use
a directional or non-directional hypothesis?
At the end of a study, which hypothesis is The correct hypothesis is retained, and the
retained, and which one is rejected? incorrect hypothesis is rejected
When writing a hypothesis, what is the first If the scenario is testing for a difference or a
thing to consider? relationship
When writing a hypothesis, how do you know It will be a difference between two conditions in
the scenario is testing for a difference? an experiment
When writing a hypothesis, how do you know It will be a correlation or relationship between
the scenario is testing for a relationship? two variables
Would you draw a difference between two A bar chart
conditions in an experiment as a bar chart or a
scatter graph?
Would you draw a relationship between two A scatter graph
variables as a bar chart or a scatter graph?
What is the writing frame for writing a null “There will be no significant difference in (DV)
hypothesis when testing for a difference? between participants who (condition 1) and
participants who (condition 2). Any difference
is due to chance.”
