HESI FINAL EXAM – PATHOPHYSIOLOGY WITH COMPLETE
SOLUTIONS GUARANTEED PASS 2024-2025
Ischemia
Lack of blood flow
Hypoxia
Lack of O2
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Necrosis
Unplanned, irreversible cell injury
Edema
Fluid in the interstitial space
Hypertonic
Too much solute vs. solvent
Cell shrinks!
Hypotonic
Too little solute vs. solvent
Cell swells! (remember hypOtonic)
Hypocalcemia signs
Trousseau's sign
Chvostek's sign
Trousseau's sign
A sign of hypocalcemia . Carpal spasm caused by inflating a blood
pressure cuff above the client's systolic pressure and leaving it in place for
3 minutes
Chvostek's sign
,A sign of hypocalcemia. Cheek, facial spasm when the cheek is tapped
Hypokalemia EKG signs
ST depression, U wave
Hyperkalemia EKG signs
Tall, peaked T wave
Hypermagnesemia signs
Depressed CNS
Think about magnesium's calming effect
Hypomagnesemia signs
Stimulated CNS
ABG normal pH
7.35-7.45
ABG acidotic pH
Below 7.35
ABG alkalotic pH
Greater than 7.45
ABG Normal PaCO2
35-45
ABG respiratory acidosis
Decreased pH
Increased PaCO2
Normal HCO3
Ventilatory depression... patient retaining CO2
ABG respiratory alkalosis
Increased pH
Decreased PaCO2
,Normal HCO3
Hyperventilation... patient breathing off too much CO2
ABG normal HCO3
22-26
ABG metabolic acidosis
Decreased pH
Decreased HCO3
Kidneys fail to reabsorb bicarb
ABG metabolic alkalosis
Increased pH
Increased HCO3
Kidneys reabsorb bicarb
Innate immune system
Immediate and nonspecific immune response
Adaptive immune system
Body is programmed to attack specific antigens
Innate immune system barriers
Skin, hair, nails, saliva, mucous membranes, etc
1st responders in innate immune system
Neutrophils (bands)
Later responders in innate immune system
Monocytes that are turned into macrophages
B cells are made here
Made in bone marrow
, T cells are made here
Made in the thymus
Inflammation local signs
Heat, redness, swelling, pain
Inflammation systemic signs
Fever
Leukocytosis
Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP)
Lymphadenopathy
Five types of antibodies
IgG
IgM
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
Most abundant
Crosses placenta
IgM
Largest antibody
First antibody produced during initial, primary response to antigens
IgA
Found in blood and bodily secretions
IgD
Attached to B cells
Activates B cells
IgE
SOLUTIONS GUARANTEED PASS 2024-2025
Ischemia
Lack of blood flow
Hypoxia
Lack of O2
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Necrosis
Unplanned, irreversible cell injury
Edema
Fluid in the interstitial space
Hypertonic
Too much solute vs. solvent
Cell shrinks!
Hypotonic
Too little solute vs. solvent
Cell swells! (remember hypOtonic)
Hypocalcemia signs
Trousseau's sign
Chvostek's sign
Trousseau's sign
A sign of hypocalcemia . Carpal spasm caused by inflating a blood
pressure cuff above the client's systolic pressure and leaving it in place for
3 minutes
Chvostek's sign
,A sign of hypocalcemia. Cheek, facial spasm when the cheek is tapped
Hypokalemia EKG signs
ST depression, U wave
Hyperkalemia EKG signs
Tall, peaked T wave
Hypermagnesemia signs
Depressed CNS
Think about magnesium's calming effect
Hypomagnesemia signs
Stimulated CNS
ABG normal pH
7.35-7.45
ABG acidotic pH
Below 7.35
ABG alkalotic pH
Greater than 7.45
ABG Normal PaCO2
35-45
ABG respiratory acidosis
Decreased pH
Increased PaCO2
Normal HCO3
Ventilatory depression... patient retaining CO2
ABG respiratory alkalosis
Increased pH
Decreased PaCO2
,Normal HCO3
Hyperventilation... patient breathing off too much CO2
ABG normal HCO3
22-26
ABG metabolic acidosis
Decreased pH
Decreased HCO3
Kidneys fail to reabsorb bicarb
ABG metabolic alkalosis
Increased pH
Increased HCO3
Kidneys reabsorb bicarb
Innate immune system
Immediate and nonspecific immune response
Adaptive immune system
Body is programmed to attack specific antigens
Innate immune system barriers
Skin, hair, nails, saliva, mucous membranes, etc
1st responders in innate immune system
Neutrophils (bands)
Later responders in innate immune system
Monocytes that are turned into macrophages
B cells are made here
Made in bone marrow
, T cells are made here
Made in the thymus
Inflammation local signs
Heat, redness, swelling, pain
Inflammation systemic signs
Fever
Leukocytosis
Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP)
Lymphadenopathy
Five types of antibodies
IgG
IgM
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
Most abundant
Crosses placenta
IgM
Largest antibody
First antibody produced during initial, primary response to antigens
IgA
Found in blood and bodily secretions
IgD
Attached to B cells
Activates B cells
IgE
