2025 NEW UPDATE FOR FINAL EXAM PREP History of Psychology - PSYC 375 study questions
Athabasca University
1. Compare and contrast Stocking’s (1965) notions of presentism and historicism, and discuss the
relative merits of each approach. What considerations are involved in deciding what to include
in a history of psychology? Define a Zeitgeist, and explain its relationship to historical accounts.
Define both the great-person approach to history and the historical development approach.
What approach did Henley elect to use?:
a. Presentism is interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary
knowledge and standards. When determining what to include in a history of anything,
one traces those people, ideas, and events that led to what is important now.
b. Historicism is the study of the past for its own sake without attempting to relate the
past and present. Letting contemporary psychology be a guide for deciding what
individuals, ideas, and events to include in a history of psychology also serves to limit
personal bias. Only the most relevant people and events are chosen to be included,
with reference to relevant details related.
c. Zeitgeist is the spirit of the times. Historians consider it vital to the full understanding
of any historical development. It is relevant in terms of how much to emphasize the
influence of such non psychological matters as developments in other sciences,
political climate, technological advancement, and socioeconomic conditions.
d. Great-person approach is the approach to history that concentrates on the most
prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration.
e. Historical development approach is the approach to history that concentrates on an
element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to
studying that element has changed over time.
f. Henley takes the eclectic approach which shows that sometimes the spirit of the times
clearly produces great individuals and that sometimes great individuals shape the
spirit of their times. At other historical moments, we will see how both great
individuals and the general climate of the times evolve to change the meaning of an
idea or a concept.
2. Define and describe the three reasons the author cites for studying the history of psychology:
(a) deeper understanding, (b) recognition of fads and fashions, (c) a source of valuable ideas.
Why did Galileo and Kant claim that psychology could never be a science? What are the two
major components of a science?:
a. Historical awareness allows us to have a better understanding of psychology today,
why it is what it is and how it became so.
b. Whether something is accepted as true can be subjective and arbitrary, as
zeitgeists change, so does what is considered fashionable
c. Some ideas lay dormant before society is ready to accept them.
d. Galileo and Kant claimed psychology could not be a science because of its
concern with subjective experience.
e. 2 components are empirical observation and scientific theory.
3. Define empirical observation and scientific theory, including its two functions, and describe
their relation to rationalism and empiricism. What is public observation and why is it
important? Describe the two types of scientific laws and give an original example of each.
Describe the difficulties in identifying causes.:
a. Rationalism and empiricism are methods of attaining knowledge.
i. Rationalism: mental operations must be employed before knowledge can be
,attained (e.g. thinking logically about something).
, ii. Empiricism: the source of all knowledge is sensory observation. Two
functions are to organize empirical observation and act as a guide for
future observations. Traditionally, scientific theory is a proposed
explanation of a number of empirical observations.
b. Public observation is the stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any
interested person to observe. Science is interested in general, empirical relationships
that are publicly verifiable. Public observation is important because all scientific claims
must be verifiable by any interested person.
c. Two types of laws are; correlational laws, which describe how classes of events vary
together in some systematic way, and causal laws, which specify how events are
causally related. Correlational laws allow prediction, but causal laws allow prediction
and control. For example, you can predict someone’s likelihood of passing a test by
observing and analyzing the time in which they put into studying and preparation with
correlational laws. With casual laws, you could predict and control the outcome if you
changed the person’s study methods to improve their retention and the amount of
time dedicated to the subject in which they are studying.
4. Describe Karl Popper’s (1902–1994) objections to the traditional view of scientific activity.
Define the principle of falsifiability and the concept of postdiction, describing their
relevance to scientific theorizing. Describe Popper’s views on theories.:
a. Popper believed that pure observation is too vague, scientific activity begins with a
problem to be solved which directs the observations.
b. Principle of falsifiability: a scientific theory must be refutable. Popper’s contention that
for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made,
would refute the theory. To be considered scientific, a theory must make risky
predictions. Postdiction is an attempt to account for something after it has occurred.
Postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions
under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur.
c. Popper believed that a theory’s incorrect predictions are the ones that cause
scientific progress.
5. Describe Thomas Kuhn’s (1922–1996) conception of scientific activity and define his notions of
normal science, puzzle solving, anomalies, and his three stages of scientific development.
According to Henley, at what stage is contemporary psychology? Describe Feyerabend’s analysis
of the use of rules and methods in science.:
a. The correspondence theory of truth: the goal of evaluating science is to
determine whether it corresponds to an external mind-independent world.
According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they
explore the implications of a paradigm is “normal science”.
b. Puzzle solving: Kuhn believed normal science was like solving a puzzle, where the
steps followed specific rules and that this lacks creativity.
c. Anomalies: consistent observations the current paradigm cannot explain. Pre-
paradigmatic stage: many competing viewpoints.
d. Paradigmatic stage: puzzle-solving activities of normal science.
e. Revolutionary stage: one paradigm is displaced by another. This text assumes
psychology is a multiparadigmatic discipline, rather than at the pre paradigmatic
stage.
f. Feyerabend argues for an anarchist theory of knowledge where rules must be
broken for progress to occur.
, 6. Define and describe biological, environmental, and sociocultural determinism, as well as
physical and psychical determinism. What did Freud mean when he said that much behaviour is
overdetermined? Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and describe its relevance to
psychological research.:
a. Biological determinism is the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical,
genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior.
b. Environmental determinism is the type of determinism that stresses causes of
behavior that are external to the organism.
c. Sociocultural determinism is the type of environmental determinism that stresses
cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of
behavior.
d. Freud said behavior is seldom, if ever, caused by a single event or even a few events.
Rather, a multitude of interacting events typically causes behavior. physical
determinism is the type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior.
Physical determinism is the type of determinism that stresses material causes of
behavior. Psychical determinism is the type of determinism that stresses mental
causes of behavior.
e. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle says that, although human behavior is indeed
determined, we can never learn some causes of behavior, because in attempting to
observe them we change them.
7. Define indeterminism, free will and nondeterminism. Define William James’s notions of hard
and soft determinism. What does Henley conclude regarding whether psychology is a science?:
a. Indeterminism means the contention that even though determinism is true, attempting
to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to
know them with certainty. This contention is also called Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle. Free will and nondeterminism are the same thing, they are both the belief
that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is, therefore, not
caused by antecedent physical or mental events.
b. James defines hard determinism as the causes of human behavior that are thought
to function in an automatic, mechanistic manner and thus render the notion of
personal responsibility meaningless. Soft determinism is defined as cognitive
processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values that intervene between
experience and behavior.
c. Henley concludes that whether we consider psych a science depends on which aspect
of psych we focus on. Just because a thing is not scientific does not minimize its value.
Some concepts have a long philosophical heritage and are ready to be treated
scientifically; other concepts are still in their early stages of development and are not
ready for scientific treatment.
8. Cite and describe the essential features of the eight persistent questions in psychology. Define
the terms used to describe the various mind-body views (i.e., types of monism and dualism).
Be sure that that following terms are reflected in your answer; nativism, empiricism,
mechanism, vitalism, rationalism, naive realism, reification, universalism, and relativism.:
a. How are the mind and body related?
Athabasca University
1. Compare and contrast Stocking’s (1965) notions of presentism and historicism, and discuss the
relative merits of each approach. What considerations are involved in deciding what to include
in a history of psychology? Define a Zeitgeist, and explain its relationship to historical accounts.
Define both the great-person approach to history and the historical development approach.
What approach did Henley elect to use?:
a. Presentism is interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary
knowledge and standards. When determining what to include in a history of anything,
one traces those people, ideas, and events that led to what is important now.
b. Historicism is the study of the past for its own sake without attempting to relate the
past and present. Letting contemporary psychology be a guide for deciding what
individuals, ideas, and events to include in a history of psychology also serves to limit
personal bias. Only the most relevant people and events are chosen to be included,
with reference to relevant details related.
c. Zeitgeist is the spirit of the times. Historians consider it vital to the full understanding
of any historical development. It is relevant in terms of how much to emphasize the
influence of such non psychological matters as developments in other sciences,
political climate, technological advancement, and socioeconomic conditions.
d. Great-person approach is the approach to history that concentrates on the most
prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration.
e. Historical development approach is the approach to history that concentrates on an
element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to
studying that element has changed over time.
f. Henley takes the eclectic approach which shows that sometimes the spirit of the times
clearly produces great individuals and that sometimes great individuals shape the
spirit of their times. At other historical moments, we will see how both great
individuals and the general climate of the times evolve to change the meaning of an
idea or a concept.
2. Define and describe the three reasons the author cites for studying the history of psychology:
(a) deeper understanding, (b) recognition of fads and fashions, (c) a source of valuable ideas.
Why did Galileo and Kant claim that psychology could never be a science? What are the two
major components of a science?:
a. Historical awareness allows us to have a better understanding of psychology today,
why it is what it is and how it became so.
b. Whether something is accepted as true can be subjective and arbitrary, as
zeitgeists change, so does what is considered fashionable
c. Some ideas lay dormant before society is ready to accept them.
d. Galileo and Kant claimed psychology could not be a science because of its
concern with subjective experience.
e. 2 components are empirical observation and scientific theory.
3. Define empirical observation and scientific theory, including its two functions, and describe
their relation to rationalism and empiricism. What is public observation and why is it
important? Describe the two types of scientific laws and give an original example of each.
Describe the difficulties in identifying causes.:
a. Rationalism and empiricism are methods of attaining knowledge.
i. Rationalism: mental operations must be employed before knowledge can be
,attained (e.g. thinking logically about something).
, ii. Empiricism: the source of all knowledge is sensory observation. Two
functions are to organize empirical observation and act as a guide for
future observations. Traditionally, scientific theory is a proposed
explanation of a number of empirical observations.
b. Public observation is the stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any
interested person to observe. Science is interested in general, empirical relationships
that are publicly verifiable. Public observation is important because all scientific claims
must be verifiable by any interested person.
c. Two types of laws are; correlational laws, which describe how classes of events vary
together in some systematic way, and causal laws, which specify how events are
causally related. Correlational laws allow prediction, but causal laws allow prediction
and control. For example, you can predict someone’s likelihood of passing a test by
observing and analyzing the time in which they put into studying and preparation with
correlational laws. With casual laws, you could predict and control the outcome if you
changed the person’s study methods to improve their retention and the amount of
time dedicated to the subject in which they are studying.
4. Describe Karl Popper’s (1902–1994) objections to the traditional view of scientific activity.
Define the principle of falsifiability and the concept of postdiction, describing their
relevance to scientific theorizing. Describe Popper’s views on theories.:
a. Popper believed that pure observation is too vague, scientific activity begins with a
problem to be solved which directs the observations.
b. Principle of falsifiability: a scientific theory must be refutable. Popper’s contention that
for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made,
would refute the theory. To be considered scientific, a theory must make risky
predictions. Postdiction is an attempt to account for something after it has occurred.
Postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions
under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur.
c. Popper believed that a theory’s incorrect predictions are the ones that cause
scientific progress.
5. Describe Thomas Kuhn’s (1922–1996) conception of scientific activity and define his notions of
normal science, puzzle solving, anomalies, and his three stages of scientific development.
According to Henley, at what stage is contemporary psychology? Describe Feyerabend’s analysis
of the use of rules and methods in science.:
a. The correspondence theory of truth: the goal of evaluating science is to
determine whether it corresponds to an external mind-independent world.
According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they
explore the implications of a paradigm is “normal science”.
b. Puzzle solving: Kuhn believed normal science was like solving a puzzle, where the
steps followed specific rules and that this lacks creativity.
c. Anomalies: consistent observations the current paradigm cannot explain. Pre-
paradigmatic stage: many competing viewpoints.
d. Paradigmatic stage: puzzle-solving activities of normal science.
e. Revolutionary stage: one paradigm is displaced by another. This text assumes
psychology is a multiparadigmatic discipline, rather than at the pre paradigmatic
stage.
f. Feyerabend argues for an anarchist theory of knowledge where rules must be
broken for progress to occur.
, 6. Define and describe biological, environmental, and sociocultural determinism, as well as
physical and psychical determinism. What did Freud mean when he said that much behaviour is
overdetermined? Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and describe its relevance to
psychological research.:
a. Biological determinism is the type of determinism that stresses the biochemical,
genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior.
b. Environmental determinism is the type of determinism that stresses causes of
behavior that are external to the organism.
c. Sociocultural determinism is the type of environmental determinism that stresses
cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of
behavior.
d. Freud said behavior is seldom, if ever, caused by a single event or even a few events.
Rather, a multitude of interacting events typically causes behavior. physical
determinism is the type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior.
Physical determinism is the type of determinism that stresses material causes of
behavior. Psychical determinism is the type of determinism that stresses mental
causes of behavior.
e. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle says that, although human behavior is indeed
determined, we can never learn some causes of behavior, because in attempting to
observe them we change them.
7. Define indeterminism, free will and nondeterminism. Define William James’s notions of hard
and soft determinism. What does Henley conclude regarding whether psychology is a science?:
a. Indeterminism means the contention that even though determinism is true, attempting
to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to
know them with certainty. This contention is also called Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle. Free will and nondeterminism are the same thing, they are both the belief
that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is, therefore, not
caused by antecedent physical or mental events.
b. James defines hard determinism as the causes of human behavior that are thought
to function in an automatic, mechanistic manner and thus render the notion of
personal responsibility meaningless. Soft determinism is defined as cognitive
processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values that intervene between
experience and behavior.
c. Henley concludes that whether we consider psych a science depends on which aspect
of psych we focus on. Just because a thing is not scientific does not minimize its value.
Some concepts have a long philosophical heritage and are ready to be treated
scientifically; other concepts are still in their early stages of development and are not
ready for scientific treatment.
8. Cite and describe the essential features of the eight persistent questions in psychology. Define
the terms used to describe the various mind-body views (i.e., types of monism and dualism).
Be sure that that following terms are reflected in your answer; nativism, empiricism,
mechanism, vitalism, rationalism, naive realism, reification, universalism, and relativism.:
a. How are the mind and body related?
