BIO202 EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2025 QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔What are Preload, Contractility, and Afterload and how do they affect Stroke
Volume? - ✔✔Preload: amount of blood in ventricles at end of diastole (when ventricles
are relaxed & filling with blood).
- Effect on Stroke Volume: Increasing preload generally increases stroke volume. Heart
stretches more when filled with more blood, leading to more forceful contraction (Frank-
Starling mechanism).
Contractility: intrinsic ability of heart muscle to contract, independent of preload &
afterload.
- Effect on Stroke Volume: Increasing contractility, for example during exercise,
increases stroke volume.
Afterload: resistance heart must pump against to eject blood, primarily related to
systemic blood pressure.
- Effect on Stroke Volume:
Increasing afterload generally decreases stroke volume. A higher resistance makes it
harder for heart to pump blood out.
✔✔Describe the shape, color and function of the formed elements in blood. -
✔✔Erythrocytes (RBCs)
- Shape: Biconcave disks, thin in middle & thicker at edges.
- Color: Red, due to hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen.
- Function: Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues & CO2 from tissues back to lungs.
Leukocytes (WBCs)
- Shape: Varying, depending on type of WBC.
- Color: Typically colorless or lightly stained.
- Function: Defend body against infection & foreign substances.
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
- Shape: Small, irregularly shaped cell fragments.
- Color: Pale.
- Function: Initiate blood clotting & help repair damaged blood vessels.
✔✔Describe the shape, color and function of each type of white blood vessels. - ✔✔1.
Neutrophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is typically bilobed or multilobed.
- Color: Stains a light pink to purple.
- Function: Primary role is to engulf & kill bacteria & fungi.
2. Eosinophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is usually bilobed or C-shaped.
- Color: Stains red or pink with reddish-orange granules.
- Function: Involved in fighting parasitic infections & allergic reactions.
,3. Basophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is usually bilobed & can be obscured by granules.
- Color: Cytoplasm contains many blue granules.
- Function: Release histamine & other chemicals that trigger inflammation & allergic
responses.
4. Monocytes:
- Shape: Large cell with a horseshoe or kidney-shaped nucleus.
- Color: Cytoplasm appears blue-gray.
- Function: Develop into macrophages & dendritic cells, which engulf pathogens &
debris.
5. Lymphocytes:
Shape: Small cells with a large, round nucleus.
Color: Cytoplasm is typically pale blue.
Function: Involved in specific immunity, including the production of antibodies and the
killing of infected cells.
✔✔Describe the components of hemoglobin and the products of its breakdown. -
✔✔Components of Hemoglobin:
- Globin: A protein made up of 4 polypeptide chains (alpha & beta in adults).
- Heme: A porphyrin ring with an iron atom at its center. This is where O2 binds to Hb.
- Iron (Fe): Essential for O2 binding to hemoglobin.
Products of Hb Breakdown:
1. Globin Breakdown: Globin chains are broken down into individual amino acids.These
amino acids can be recycled to synthesize other proteins.
2. Heme Breakdown: iron atom is separated from heme molecule & transported to
storage sites or used in synthesis of new Hb. Heme portion (without iron) is converted
into biliverdin. Biliverdin is quickly reduced to bilirubin, a yellow pigment.
Bilirubin is then transported to liver, where it is processed & excreted in bile.
3. Bilirubin Metabolism:
In the liver, bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid, making it more water-soluble.
Conjugated bilirubin is excreted in bile.
In the intestines, some bilirubin is converted into urobilinogen, which is then excreted in
urine and stool
✔✔List the three types of granular leukocytes and the two types of agranular
leukocytes. - ✔✔Granulocytes:
- Neutrophils: most abundant type of WBC & play a crucial role in fighting bacterial
infections.
- Eosinophils: These cells are involved in combating parasitic infections & allergic
reactions.
- Basophils: These are least abundant granulocytes & release histamine, which is
involved in allergic reactions & inflammation.
Agranulocytes:
,- Lymphocytes: These are involved in specific immune response, including B cells, T
cells, & nk cells.
- Monocytes: These are phagocytic cells that circulate in blood & can differentiate into
macrophages & dendritic cells, which are involved in engulfing pathogens & initiating
immune response.
✔✔Follow the formation of all blood cells from the pluripotent stem cells to the final
formed elements. - ✔✔Myeloid Stem Cells;
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ eosinophilic myeloblast ➡️ eosinophil ️
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ basophilic myeloblast ➡️ basophil
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ myeloblast ➡️ neutrophil
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ monoblast ➡️ monocyte ➡️macrophage
Lymphoid Stem Cells:
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ T lymphoblast ➡️ T Lymphocyte (complete
development in thymus)
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ B lymphoblast ➡️ B Lymphocyte (complete
development in lymph nodes)
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ NK lymphoblast ➡️ NK cells
✔✔List the mechanisms of hemostasis. - ✔✔1. Vascular Spasm (Vasoconstriction):
When a blood vessel is injured, it constricts to reduce blood flow to damaged area,
slowing down blood loss. This is a rapid response that can last for several min.
2. Platelet Plug Formation (Primary Hemostasis):
- Platelet Adhesion: Platelets, which are normally circulating in blood, adhere to
exposed collagen in damaged vessel wall.
- Platelet Activation: Once activated, platelets change shape, release substances that
further activate nearby platelets, & become sticky, forming temporary plug at site of
injury.
3. Blood Coagulation (Secondary Hemostasis):
- Coagulation Cascade: series of enzymatic reactions involving clotting factors is
initiated, leading to production of thrombin, an enzyme that converts fibrinogen into
fibrin.
- Fibrin Clot Formation: Fibrin, a protein produced from fibrinogen, forms a mesh-like
structure that reinforces platelet plug, creating stable clot.
, 4. Fibrinolysis:
Once the injury is healed, the fibrin clot is broken down by plasmin, a naturally occurring
protein in the blood, to allow for tissue regeneration.
✔✔Describe the basics of the extrinsic coagulation pathway, the intrinsic coagulation
pathway and the final common coagulation pathway. - ✔✔Extrinsic Pathway:
- Initiated by tissue factor (TF) or factor III exposed at site of injury.
- TF binds to factor VII (VII), activating it.
- Activated factor VIIa then activates factor X (X), initiating final common pathway.
Intrinsic Pathway:
- Initiated by factor XII (XII) in blood, often due to exposure to negatively charged
surfaces like collagen.
- Factor XIIa activates factor XI (XI), which in turn activates factor IX (IX).
- Factor IXa & factor VIIIa form complex called tenase complex, which activates factor
X.
Final Common Pathway:
- Both extrinsic & intrinsic pathways converge at factor X (X).
- Factor Xa, along with factor Va & phospholipids, forms prothrombinase complex.
- This complex converts prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin (factor IIa).
- Thrombin converts fibrinogen (factor I) to fibrin, forming meshwork that stabilizes clot.
- Thrombin also activates factor XIII (XIII)a, which cross-links fibrin strands to stabilize
the clot further.
✔✔List the three ways substances enter and leave capillaries. - ✔✔1. Diffusion:
involves movement of molecules (like oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, & waste
products) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across
thin capillary wall.
2. Bulk Flow: This mechanism describes movement of fluid & dissolved substances
across capillary wall, driven by hydrostatic & osmotic pressure gradients.
3. Transcytosis: involves transport of substances across capillary wall within vesicles,
which are small membrane-bound sacs. It's a way for larger molecules (like proteins &
hormones) to be transported.
✔✔Why is bulk flow important? What pressures are involved in bulk flow and what
pressure changes need to happen for bulk flow to work? - ✔✔Importance:
Bulk flow is a faster & more efficient way to move fluids & dissolved substances across
capillary walls compared to diffusion. It's essential for delivering O2 & nutrients to
tissues & removing waste products.
Hydrostatic Pressure:
pressure exerted by fluid (like blood) on walls of capillaries. It pushes fluid out of
capillaries at arteriole end & encourages reabsorption at venule end.
Osmotic Pressure:
pressure is created by presence of dissolved solutes (like proteins) in fluid. It pulls fluid
into capillaries, especially at venule end.
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔What are Preload, Contractility, and Afterload and how do they affect Stroke
Volume? - ✔✔Preload: amount of blood in ventricles at end of diastole (when ventricles
are relaxed & filling with blood).
- Effect on Stroke Volume: Increasing preload generally increases stroke volume. Heart
stretches more when filled with more blood, leading to more forceful contraction (Frank-
Starling mechanism).
Contractility: intrinsic ability of heart muscle to contract, independent of preload &
afterload.
- Effect on Stroke Volume: Increasing contractility, for example during exercise,
increases stroke volume.
Afterload: resistance heart must pump against to eject blood, primarily related to
systemic blood pressure.
- Effect on Stroke Volume:
Increasing afterload generally decreases stroke volume. A higher resistance makes it
harder for heart to pump blood out.
✔✔Describe the shape, color and function of the formed elements in blood. -
✔✔Erythrocytes (RBCs)
- Shape: Biconcave disks, thin in middle & thicker at edges.
- Color: Red, due to hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen.
- Function: Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues & CO2 from tissues back to lungs.
Leukocytes (WBCs)
- Shape: Varying, depending on type of WBC.
- Color: Typically colorless or lightly stained.
- Function: Defend body against infection & foreign substances.
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
- Shape: Small, irregularly shaped cell fragments.
- Color: Pale.
- Function: Initiate blood clotting & help repair damaged blood vessels.
✔✔Describe the shape, color and function of each type of white blood vessels. - ✔✔1.
Neutrophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is typically bilobed or multilobed.
- Color: Stains a light pink to purple.
- Function: Primary role is to engulf & kill bacteria & fungi.
2. Eosinophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is usually bilobed or C-shaped.
- Color: Stains red or pink with reddish-orange granules.
- Function: Involved in fighting parasitic infections & allergic reactions.
,3. Basophils:
- Shape: Nucleus is usually bilobed & can be obscured by granules.
- Color: Cytoplasm contains many blue granules.
- Function: Release histamine & other chemicals that trigger inflammation & allergic
responses.
4. Monocytes:
- Shape: Large cell with a horseshoe or kidney-shaped nucleus.
- Color: Cytoplasm appears blue-gray.
- Function: Develop into macrophages & dendritic cells, which engulf pathogens &
debris.
5. Lymphocytes:
Shape: Small cells with a large, round nucleus.
Color: Cytoplasm is typically pale blue.
Function: Involved in specific immunity, including the production of antibodies and the
killing of infected cells.
✔✔Describe the components of hemoglobin and the products of its breakdown. -
✔✔Components of Hemoglobin:
- Globin: A protein made up of 4 polypeptide chains (alpha & beta in adults).
- Heme: A porphyrin ring with an iron atom at its center. This is where O2 binds to Hb.
- Iron (Fe): Essential for O2 binding to hemoglobin.
Products of Hb Breakdown:
1. Globin Breakdown: Globin chains are broken down into individual amino acids.These
amino acids can be recycled to synthesize other proteins.
2. Heme Breakdown: iron atom is separated from heme molecule & transported to
storage sites or used in synthesis of new Hb. Heme portion (without iron) is converted
into biliverdin. Biliverdin is quickly reduced to bilirubin, a yellow pigment.
Bilirubin is then transported to liver, where it is processed & excreted in bile.
3. Bilirubin Metabolism:
In the liver, bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid, making it more water-soluble.
Conjugated bilirubin is excreted in bile.
In the intestines, some bilirubin is converted into urobilinogen, which is then excreted in
urine and stool
✔✔List the three types of granular leukocytes and the two types of agranular
leukocytes. - ✔✔Granulocytes:
- Neutrophils: most abundant type of WBC & play a crucial role in fighting bacterial
infections.
- Eosinophils: These cells are involved in combating parasitic infections & allergic
reactions.
- Basophils: These are least abundant granulocytes & release histamine, which is
involved in allergic reactions & inflammation.
Agranulocytes:
,- Lymphocytes: These are involved in specific immune response, including B cells, T
cells, & nk cells.
- Monocytes: These are phagocytic cells that circulate in blood & can differentiate into
macrophages & dendritic cells, which are involved in engulfing pathogens & initiating
immune response.
✔✔Follow the formation of all blood cells from the pluripotent stem cells to the final
formed elements. - ✔✔Myeloid Stem Cells;
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ eosinophilic myeloblast ➡️ eosinophil ️
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ basophilic myeloblast ➡️ basophil
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ myeloblast ➡️ neutrophil
Hemocytoblast ➡️ myeloid stem cell➡️ colony forming unit➡️granulocyte macrophage
(CFU-GM)➡️ monoblast ➡️ monocyte ➡️macrophage
Lymphoid Stem Cells:
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ T lymphoblast ➡️ T Lymphocyte (complete
development in thymus)
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ B lymphoblast ➡️ B Lymphocyte (complete
development in lymph nodes)
Hemocytoblast ➡️ lymphoid stem cell➡️ NK lymphoblast ➡️ NK cells
✔✔List the mechanisms of hemostasis. - ✔✔1. Vascular Spasm (Vasoconstriction):
When a blood vessel is injured, it constricts to reduce blood flow to damaged area,
slowing down blood loss. This is a rapid response that can last for several min.
2. Platelet Plug Formation (Primary Hemostasis):
- Platelet Adhesion: Platelets, which are normally circulating in blood, adhere to
exposed collagen in damaged vessel wall.
- Platelet Activation: Once activated, platelets change shape, release substances that
further activate nearby platelets, & become sticky, forming temporary plug at site of
injury.
3. Blood Coagulation (Secondary Hemostasis):
- Coagulation Cascade: series of enzymatic reactions involving clotting factors is
initiated, leading to production of thrombin, an enzyme that converts fibrinogen into
fibrin.
- Fibrin Clot Formation: Fibrin, a protein produced from fibrinogen, forms a mesh-like
structure that reinforces platelet plug, creating stable clot.
, 4. Fibrinolysis:
Once the injury is healed, the fibrin clot is broken down by plasmin, a naturally occurring
protein in the blood, to allow for tissue regeneration.
✔✔Describe the basics of the extrinsic coagulation pathway, the intrinsic coagulation
pathway and the final common coagulation pathway. - ✔✔Extrinsic Pathway:
- Initiated by tissue factor (TF) or factor III exposed at site of injury.
- TF binds to factor VII (VII), activating it.
- Activated factor VIIa then activates factor X (X), initiating final common pathway.
Intrinsic Pathway:
- Initiated by factor XII (XII) in blood, often due to exposure to negatively charged
surfaces like collagen.
- Factor XIIa activates factor XI (XI), which in turn activates factor IX (IX).
- Factor IXa & factor VIIIa form complex called tenase complex, which activates factor
X.
Final Common Pathway:
- Both extrinsic & intrinsic pathways converge at factor X (X).
- Factor Xa, along with factor Va & phospholipids, forms prothrombinase complex.
- This complex converts prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin (factor IIa).
- Thrombin converts fibrinogen (factor I) to fibrin, forming meshwork that stabilizes clot.
- Thrombin also activates factor XIII (XIII)a, which cross-links fibrin strands to stabilize
the clot further.
✔✔List the three ways substances enter and leave capillaries. - ✔✔1. Diffusion:
involves movement of molecules (like oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, & waste
products) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across
thin capillary wall.
2. Bulk Flow: This mechanism describes movement of fluid & dissolved substances
across capillary wall, driven by hydrostatic & osmotic pressure gradients.
3. Transcytosis: involves transport of substances across capillary wall within vesicles,
which are small membrane-bound sacs. It's a way for larger molecules (like proteins &
hormones) to be transported.
✔✔Why is bulk flow important? What pressures are involved in bulk flow and what
pressure changes need to happen for bulk flow to work? - ✔✔Importance:
Bulk flow is a faster & more efficient way to move fluids & dissolved substances across
capillary walls compared to diffusion. It's essential for delivering O2 & nutrients to
tissues & removing waste products.
Hydrostatic Pressure:
pressure exerted by fluid (like blood) on walls of capillaries. It pushes fluid out of
capillaries at arteriole end & encourages reabsorption at venule end.
Osmotic Pressure:
pressure is created by presence of dissolved solutes (like proteins) in fluid. It pulls fluid
into capillaries, especially at venule end.
