PAPER 2 2021

PAPER 2 2021


Whatbmisbmmeantbmbybmthebmtermbmecologicalbmvalidity?bm-bmanswers--
thebmextentbmtobmwhichbmbehavioursbmobservedbmandbmrecordedbminbmabmstudybmreflectbmthebmbeh
avioursbmthatbmactuallybmoccurbminbmthebmrealbmworld.



JemimabmandbmLilybmarebmidenticalbmtwins.bmLilybmcomplainsbmtobmJemima,bm"Ibmdon'tbmunderstandb
mit.bmIfbmwebmhavebmthebmsamebmgenes,bmhowbmcomebmyoubmhavebmclearerbmskinbmthanbmmebmand
bmarebmmuchbmbetterbmatbmnetball?"bmJemimabmlaughsbmandbmreplies,bm"Lily,bmwebmmaybmbebmidenti
calbmtwins,bmbutbmwebmarebmnotbmidenticalbmpeople."bmUsingbmyourbmknowledgebmofbmgenotypebman
dbmphenotype,bmexplainbmLily'sbmandbmJemima'sbmcomments.bm-bmanswers--
LilybmandbmJemimabmhavebmidenticalbmgenotypesbm(genotypebmrefersbmtobmthebmgeneticbmmake-
upbmofbmanbmindividual)bm

•bmLilybmandbmJemimabmdobmnotbmhavebmidenticalbmphenotypesbm(phenotypebmrefersbmtobmthebmobs
ervablebmcharacteristicsbmofbmanbmindividualbmasbmabmresultbmofbmtheirbmgenotypebmandbmtheirbmenv
ironment)

bm•bmalthoughbmLilybmandbmJemimabmhavebmthebmsamebmgenes,bmJemimabmmightbmpracticebmnetball
bmmorebmorbmhavebmstartedbmlessonsbmearlierbmthanbmLily,bmthesebmenvironmentalbmfactorsbmmaybm
makebmherbmbetterbmatbmnetballbm

•bmalthoughbmLilybmandbmJemimabmhavebmthebmsamebmgenes,bmJemimabmmightbmhavebmabmdifferentb
mskinbmcarebmroutine/diet/sunbmexposure/
etcbmthanbmLily,bmthesebmenvironmentalbmfactorsbmmaybmmakebmherbmskinbmclearerbmthanbmLily's



LilybmandbmJemimabmhavebmabmpetbmrat,bmwhichbmusuallybmhidesbminbmabmcornerbmwhenbmtheybmtryb
mtobmtakebmitbmoutbmboxbmofbmitsbmcage.bmTheybmhavebmtriedbmdifferentbmwaysbmtobmstopbmthebmrat
bmhiding,bmbutbmsobmfarbmwithoutbmsuccess.bmUsebmyourbmknowledgebmofbmtwobmtypesbmofbmreinfor
cementbmtobmsuggestbmhowbmLilybmandbmJemimabmcouldbmtrainbmtheirbmratbmtobmcomebmtobmthebmc
agebmdoorbmwhenbmtheybmopenbmit.bm-bmanswers--•bmpositivebmreinforcementbm-bmwhenbmLily/
Jemimabmopenbmthebmcagebmdoorbmtheybmcanbmgivebmthebmratbmtreatsbmlikebmchocolatebmdropsbmfor
bmcomingbmtobmthebmcagebmdoorbmwhenbmtheybmopenbmit.bmThisbmwillbmmakebmthebmratbmmorebmlik
elybmtobmcomebmtobmthebmdoorbmthebmnextbmtimebmtheybmopenbmthebmcagebm•bmnegativebmreinforc
ementbm-
bmhavebmsomethingbmunpleasantbmlikebmsprayingbmthebmratbmwithbmwaterbmorbmplayingbmloudbmmusi

, c/
alarmbmandbmthenbmstopbmthisbmwhenbmthebmratbmcomesbmtobmthebmdoorbmsobmthatbmoverbmtimebm
whenbmtheybmopenbmthebmcagebmthebmratbmwillbmbebmmorebmlikelybmtobmcomebmtobmthebmdoor



Comparebmthebmhumanisticbmapproachbmwithbmthebmpsychodynamicbmapproachbm-bmanswers--
•bmdeterminismbm-
bmthebmhumanisticbmapproachbmassumesbmpeoplebmhavebmfreebmchoicebmoverbmtheirbmbehaviour,bmw
hereasbmthebmpsychodynamicbmapproachbmassumesbmthatbmbehaviourbmisbmdeterminedbmbybmuncons
ciousbmfactorsbm(beyondbmconsciousbmcontrol)bm

•bmnature/nurturebm-
bmthebmhumanisticbmapproachbmassumesbmbehaviourbmisbmaffectedbmbybmdesirebmtobmself-
actualisebm(nature)bmandbmourbmexperiencebmcanbmprovidebmbarriersbmtobmthisbmthroughbmconditions
bmofbmworthbmandbmvaryingbmexperiencebmofbmconditionalbmpositivebmregardbm(nurture).bmLikewise,b
mthebmpsychodynamicbmapproachbmassumesbmbehaviourbmisbmdrivenbmbybmunconsciousbmforces,bmegb
mid/ego/
superegobmdynamicsbm(nature)bmbutbmourbmcopingbmmechanismsbmsuchbmasbmdefencebmmechanismsb
marisebmfrombmexperiencebm(nurture)bm

•bmmethodologybm-
bmbothbmarebmmuchbmlessbmscientificbmthanbmotherbmapproachesbm(butbmthebmpsychodynamicbmappr
oachbmassumesbmthatbmsomebmaspectsbmofbmbehaviourbmcanbmbebminvestigatedbmscientifically)

bm•bmtherapybm-
bmRogersbmbelievedbmthatbmcounsellingbm(utilisingbmunconditionalbmpositivebmregard)bmcanbmbebmused
bmtobmhelpbmclientsbmsolvebmtheirbmproblems,bmovercomebmconditionsbmofbmworthbmandbmenablebmt
heirbmpotentialbmforbmselfactualisation,bmwhereasbmFreudbmbelievedbmthatbmpsychoanalysisbmcanbmlea
dbmtobmimprovementsbminbmclientsbmthroughbmpsychotherapy.



biopsychbm-bmanswers--



Describebmthebmstructurebmandbmfunctionbmofbmabmneuron.bm-
bmanswers--.Neuronsbmenablebmcommunicationbmwithinbmthebmnervousbmsystembm

•bmthebmcellbmbodybm(soma)bmcontainsbmthebmgeneticbmmaterialbm

•bmbranch-likebmdendritesbmextendbmfrombmthebmcellbmbodybm(oftenbmwithbmdendriticbmspines)

bm•bmdendritesbmcarrybmfunctionalbminformationbmtowardsbmthebmcellbmbodybm•bmdendritesbmcanbmre
ceivebminformationbmfrombmotherbmneuronsbm

•bmaxonsbmcarrybmmessagesbmawaybmfrombmthebmcellbmbody

bm•bmaxonsbmcanbmbebmmyelinatedbmtobmincreasebmspeedbmofbmnervebmtransmissionbm(saltatorybmco
nductionbmbetweenbmnodesbmofbmRanvier)