PAPER 2 2021QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
as
Whatasisasmeantasbyastheastermasecologicalasvalidity?as-asanswers--
theasextentastoaswhichasbehavioursasobservedasandasrecordedasinasaasstudyasreflectastheasbehavioursasth
atasactuallyasoccurasinastheasrealasworld.
JemimaasandasLilyasareasidenticalastwins.asLilyascomplainsastoasJemima,as"Iasdon'tasunderstandasit.asIfaswe
ashaveastheassameasgenes,ashowascomeasyouashaveasclearerasskinasthanasmeasandasareasmuchasbetterasat
asnetball?"asJemimaaslaughsasandasreplies,as"Lily,asweasmayasbeasidenticalastwins,asbutasweasareasnotaside
nticalaspeople."asUsingasyourasknowledgeasofasgenotypeasandasphenotype,asexplainasLily'sasandasJemima'
sascomments.as-asanswers--
LilyasandasJemimaashaveasidenticalasgenotypesas(genotypeasrefersastoastheasgeneticasmake-
upasofasanasindividual)as
•asLilyasandasJemimaasdoasnotashaveasidenticalasphenotypesas(phenotypeasrefersastoastheasobservableasc
haracteristicsasofasanasindividualasasasaasresultasofastheirasgenotypeasandastheirasenvironment)
as•asalthoughasLilyasandasJemimaashaveastheassameasgenes,asJemimaasmightaspracticeasnetballasmoreasor
ashaveasstartedaslessonsasearlierasthanasLily,astheseasenvironmentalasfactorsasmayasmakeasherasbetterasata
snetballas
•asalthoughasLilyasandasJemimaashaveastheassameasgenes,asJemimaasmightashaveasaasdifferentasskinascare
asroutine/diet/sunasexposure/
etcasthanasLily,astheseasenvironmentalasfactorsasmayasmakeasherasskinasclearerasthanasLily's
LilyasandasJemimaashaveasaaspetasrat,aswhichasusuallyashidesasinasaascorneraswhenastheyastryastoastakeasita
soutasboxasofasitsascage.asTheyashaveastriedasdifferentaswaysastoasstopastheasratashiding,asbutassoasfaraswit
houtassuccess.asUseasyourasknowledgeasofastwoastypesasofasreinforcementastoassuggestashowasLilyasandas
Jemimaascouldastrainastheirasratastoascomeastoastheascageasdooraswhenastheyasopenasit.as-asanswers--
•aspositiveasreinforcementas-aswhenasLily/
Jemimaasopenastheascageasdoorastheyascanasgiveastheasratastreatsaslikeaschocolateasdropsasforascomingast
oastheascageasdooraswhenastheyasopenasit.asThisaswillasmakeastheasratasmoreaslikelyastoascomeastoastheasd
oorastheasnextastimeastheyasopenastheascageas•asnegativeasreinforcementas-
, PAPER 2 2021QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
ashaveassomethingasunpleasantaslikeassprayingastheasrataswithaswaterasorasplayingasloudasmusic/
alarmasandasthenasstopasthisaswhenastheasratascomesastoastheasdoorassoasthatasoverastimeaswhenastheyas
openastheascageastheasrataswillasbeasmoreaslikelyastoascomeastoastheasdoor
Compareastheashumanisticasapproachaswithastheaspsychodynamicasapproachas-asanswers--
•asdeterminismas-
astheashumanisticasapproachasassumesaspeopleashaveasfreeaschoiceasoverastheirasbehaviour,aswhereasast
heaspsychodynamicasapproachasassumesasthatasbehaviourasisasdeterminedasbyasunconsciousasfactorsas(b
eyondasconsciousascontrol)as
•asnature/nurtureas-astheashumanisticasapproachasassumesasbehaviourasisasaffectedasbyasdesireastoasself-
actualiseas(nature)asandasourasexperienceascanasprovideasbarriersastoasthisasthroughasconditionsasofaswor
thasandasvaryingasexperienceasofasconditionalaspositiveasregardas(nurture).asLikewise,astheaspsychodynam
icasapproachasassumesasbehaviourasisasdrivenasbyasunconsciousasforces,asegasid/ego/
superegoasdynamicsas(nature)asbutasourascopingasmechanismsassuchasasasdefenceasmechanismsasariseasf
romasexperienceas(nurture)as
•asmethodologyas-
asbothasareasmuchaslessasscientificasthanasotherasapproachesas(butastheaspsychodynamicasapproachasassu
mesasthatassomeasaspectsasofasbehaviourascanasbeasinvestigatedasscientifically)
as•astherapyas-
asRogersasbelievedasthatascounsellingas(utilisingasunconditionalaspositiveasregard)ascanasbeasusedastoashel
pasclientsassolveastheirasproblems,asovercomeasconditionsasofasworthasandasenableastheiraspotentialasfora
sselfactualisation,aswhereasasFreudasbelievedasthataspsychoanalysisascanasleadastoasimprovementsasinascli
entsasthroughaspsychotherapy.
biopsychas-asanswers--
Describeastheasstructureasandasfunctionasofasaasneuron.as-
asanswers--.Neuronsasenableascommunicationaswithinastheasnervousassystemas
•astheascellasbodyas(soma)ascontainsastheasgeneticasmaterialas
•asbranch-likeasdendritesasextendasfromastheascellasbodyas(oftenaswithasdendriticasspines)
as•asdendritesascarryasfunctionalasinformationastowardsastheascellasbodyas•asdendritesascanasreceiveasinfo
rmationasfromasotherasneuronsas
•asaxonsascarryasmessagesasawayasfromastheascellasbody
ANSWERS
as
Whatasisasmeantasbyastheastermasecologicalasvalidity?as-asanswers--
theasextentastoaswhichasbehavioursasobservedasandasrecordedasinasaasstudyasreflectastheasbehavioursasth
atasactuallyasoccurasinastheasrealasworld.
JemimaasandasLilyasareasidenticalastwins.asLilyascomplainsastoasJemima,as"Iasdon'tasunderstandasit.asIfaswe
ashaveastheassameasgenes,ashowascomeasyouashaveasclearerasskinasthanasmeasandasareasmuchasbetterasat
asnetball?"asJemimaaslaughsasandasreplies,as"Lily,asweasmayasbeasidenticalastwins,asbutasweasareasnotaside
nticalaspeople."asUsingasyourasknowledgeasofasgenotypeasandasphenotype,asexplainasLily'sasandasJemima'
sascomments.as-asanswers--
LilyasandasJemimaashaveasidenticalasgenotypesas(genotypeasrefersastoastheasgeneticasmake-
upasofasanasindividual)as
•asLilyasandasJemimaasdoasnotashaveasidenticalasphenotypesas(phenotypeasrefersastoastheasobservableasc
haracteristicsasofasanasindividualasasasaasresultasofastheirasgenotypeasandastheirasenvironment)
as•asalthoughasLilyasandasJemimaashaveastheassameasgenes,asJemimaasmightaspracticeasnetballasmoreasor
ashaveasstartedaslessonsasearlierasthanasLily,astheseasenvironmentalasfactorsasmayasmakeasherasbetterasata
snetballas
•asalthoughasLilyasandasJemimaashaveastheassameasgenes,asJemimaasmightashaveasaasdifferentasskinascare
asroutine/diet/sunasexposure/
etcasthanasLily,astheseasenvironmentalasfactorsasmayasmakeasherasskinasclearerasthanasLily's
LilyasandasJemimaashaveasaaspetasrat,aswhichasusuallyashidesasinasaascorneraswhenastheyastryastoastakeasita
soutasboxasofasitsascage.asTheyashaveastriedasdifferentaswaysastoasstopastheasratashiding,asbutassoasfaraswit
houtassuccess.asUseasyourasknowledgeasofastwoastypesasofasreinforcementastoassuggestashowasLilyasandas
Jemimaascouldastrainastheirasratastoascomeastoastheascageasdooraswhenastheyasopenasit.as-asanswers--
•aspositiveasreinforcementas-aswhenasLily/
Jemimaasopenastheascageasdoorastheyascanasgiveastheasratastreatsaslikeaschocolateasdropsasforascomingast
oastheascageasdooraswhenastheyasopenasit.asThisaswillasmakeastheasratasmoreaslikelyastoascomeastoastheasd
oorastheasnextastimeastheyasopenastheascageas•asnegativeasreinforcementas-
, PAPER 2 2021QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
ashaveassomethingasunpleasantaslikeassprayingastheasrataswithaswaterasorasplayingasloudasmusic/
alarmasandasthenasstopasthisaswhenastheasratascomesastoastheasdoorassoasthatasoverastimeaswhenastheyas
openastheascageastheasrataswillasbeasmoreaslikelyastoascomeastoastheasdoor
Compareastheashumanisticasapproachaswithastheaspsychodynamicasapproachas-asanswers--
•asdeterminismas-
astheashumanisticasapproachasassumesaspeopleashaveasfreeaschoiceasoverastheirasbehaviour,aswhereasast
heaspsychodynamicasapproachasassumesasthatasbehaviourasisasdeterminedasbyasunconsciousasfactorsas(b
eyondasconsciousascontrol)as
•asnature/nurtureas-astheashumanisticasapproachasassumesasbehaviourasisasaffectedasbyasdesireastoasself-
actualiseas(nature)asandasourasexperienceascanasprovideasbarriersastoasthisasthroughasconditionsasofaswor
thasandasvaryingasexperienceasofasconditionalaspositiveasregardas(nurture).asLikewise,astheaspsychodynam
icasapproachasassumesasbehaviourasisasdrivenasbyasunconsciousasforces,asegasid/ego/
superegoasdynamicsas(nature)asbutasourascopingasmechanismsassuchasasasdefenceasmechanismsasariseasf
romasexperienceas(nurture)as
•asmethodologyas-
asbothasareasmuchaslessasscientificasthanasotherasapproachesas(butastheaspsychodynamicasapproachasassu
mesasthatassomeasaspectsasofasbehaviourascanasbeasinvestigatedasscientifically)
as•astherapyas-
asRogersasbelievedasthatascounsellingas(utilisingasunconditionalaspositiveasregard)ascanasbeasusedastoashel
pasclientsassolveastheirasproblems,asovercomeasconditionsasofasworthasandasenableastheiraspotentialasfora
sselfactualisation,aswhereasasFreudasbelievedasthataspsychoanalysisascanasleadastoasimprovementsasinascli
entsasthroughaspsychotherapy.
biopsychas-asanswers--
Describeastheasstructureasandasfunctionasofasaasneuron.as-
asanswers--.Neuronsasenableascommunicationaswithinastheasnervousassystemas
•astheascellasbodyas(soma)ascontainsastheasgeneticasmaterialas
•asbranch-likeasdendritesasextendasfromastheascellasbodyas(oftenaswithasdendriticasspines)
as•asdendritesascarryasfunctionalasinformationastowardsastheascellasbodyas•asdendritesascanasreceiveasinfo
rmationasfromasotherasneuronsas
•asaxonsascarryasmessagesasawayasfromastheascellasbody
