Previous exam 1:
• Living things: acquire energy, replicate, have a membrane, undergo evolution
• Schleiden studied plants and said all things made of cells
• H2O is polar and covalent
• Remak saw cells divide to make new cells
• Hydrocarbons do not have the charge to interfere w ionic bonds
• Pasteur’s experiment
o Dependent: cell growth
o Independent: neck type of flask
o Controlled variable: boiling
o Rejected null hypothesis: spontaneous separation
• Evolution: populations change over time
o Acts on fitness of individuals
• Phylogenetic trees show evolutionary history and relatedness
o Ex of inaccurate grouping: single-celled, flying, having eyes
• Paradigm shifts
o Fungi more like animals than plants
o DNA/RNA to compare species
o 3 domains created bc archaea very diff than bacteria
o 5 kingdoms was inaccurate
• Adhesion: water to surface
• Cohesion: water to water
o Hydrogen bonds connect two waters
• Water’s high specific heat buffered forming molecules from outside heat
• More acidic = lower pH = more H+ ions
o pH lowering means moving left
• More basic = higher pH = less H+ ions
o pH increasing means moving right
• pH=-log[H+]
• Spontaneous rxn: products have less PE than reactants
• Phosphate functional group: associated w chemical energy
• Hydroxyl functional group: makes compounds soluble in water
• Amino acids: supported by amino and carboxyl functional groups, create water as
byproduct, covalent bonds
• Changing anything can alter structure and function
• Alpha helix: 20 structure, Hydrogen bonds, every 4 amino acids
• 30 structure of a protein has sulfhydryl group
• Disulfide bond is stable bc covalent
• Tertiary structure made of: H bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals interactions, ionic
bonds
• Homodimer: protein 40 structure made of 2 identical subunits
• Heterotrimer: protein made of 3 different subunits
• Regulated proteins are activated in presence of something
,• Molecular chaperones fold proteins
• Carbohydrate formula: (CH2O)n
• Carbs are hydrophilic bc of carbonyl and hydroxyl
• Beta groups sometimes have monosaccharides flip to fit
o C1 and C4 hydroxyl groups form polysaccharide backbones
• Alpha chains for E storage
• Beta chains for structure
• Hydrogen bonds connect cellulose/chitin
• NAG in chitin and peptidoglycan
o Stronger in peptidoglycan
• NAM supports peptidoglycan via peptide bonds
• RNA has OH on C2
• Phosphodiester bonds link monomers
• Things added on 3’ side always
• Activated nucleotides have 3 Phosphates
• AT two H bonds; GC 3 H bonds
• 2 nm between two antiparallel strands of DNA
o Width of helix
• .34 nm between each nucleotide
• 3.4 nm is one complete turn of the helix
• RNA can hold info, self-replicate, and catalyze rxns
• Hydrophilic heads: polar & charged group, phosphate group, glycerol
o Glycerol also in triglycerides
• Functional groups make steroid molecules amphipathic and reactive
• Lipids can store E, give structure, and chemically signal
• Small, nonpolar molecules move most easily across cell membrane
• Most permeable: many, unsaturated, low cholesterol, high temp
• Hypertonic: water flows out
• Hypotonic: water flows in
• Liposome: lipid structure of water flow
• Nonpolar amino acids in phospholipid bilayer
• Carbs bound to integral protein recognize cells
• Size and charge determine channel protein’s pass-ability
• Electrochemical equilibrium: when concentration gradient equally opposed by electrical
gradient
• Carrier proteins undergo facilitated diffusion
• After ATP à ADP, three sodium ions move outside
• Active transport needs E to move something against concentration gradient
o Keeps ions not in equilibrium
o Maintains concentration gradients
• Hooke: microscopically saw cork cells
, • Leevanhaek: better microscope and functional units (cells)
• Schwann: animal tissue and named FU a cell
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• Molecular evolution uses RNA sequence
• Natural selection seen by Darwin and Wallace
• Bonds form during an endothermic rxn
• Acids donate H+; bases receive H+
• Acidic means – charge R group
• Basic means + charge R group
• Nonpolar means uncharged and has no O
• Polar means uncharged and has O
• Alpha helix
o Linkage depends on C1 orientation
• Beta pleated sheet
o Linkage depends on C1 orientation
• Denatured: folded wrong so protein doesn’t work (correctly)
• Isoprenes bind to a hydrocarbon isoprenoid chain
o Saturated: single bond
o Unsaturated: double bond
• Fats: ester link covalently, form from dehydration, and store E
• Ring structure is C1 carbonyl group receiving H and C5 hydroxyl giving H
• Evolution is a pattern; natural selection is a process
• Acid: - amino acid R group
• Base: - amino acid R group
• Nonpolar: no charge, no oxygen amino acid R group
• Polar: no charge, has oxygen amino acid R group
• Cysteine makes sulfhydryl disulfide bonds
• Polysaccharides give structural support
• Phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides
o Bind the 3’ Carbon to a 5’ phosphate group
• Hypertonic solution makes cell shrink and move outside; hypotonic solution makes cell
swell and move inside
• Selective permeability from the size of pore of channel protein and charge of amino
acids lining the pore
Previous exam 2:
• Prokaryote genetic material is in nucleoid
• Internal membrane complexes of bacteria photosynthesize
• Translation in eukaryotic rough ER
• Mitochondria in plants and animals bc endosymbiotic theory
• Nucleolus has ribosomes and RNA
• Golgi forms lysosomes from endosomes
• Living things: acquire energy, replicate, have a membrane, undergo evolution
• Schleiden studied plants and said all things made of cells
• H2O is polar and covalent
• Remak saw cells divide to make new cells
• Hydrocarbons do not have the charge to interfere w ionic bonds
• Pasteur’s experiment
o Dependent: cell growth
o Independent: neck type of flask
o Controlled variable: boiling
o Rejected null hypothesis: spontaneous separation
• Evolution: populations change over time
o Acts on fitness of individuals
• Phylogenetic trees show evolutionary history and relatedness
o Ex of inaccurate grouping: single-celled, flying, having eyes
• Paradigm shifts
o Fungi more like animals than plants
o DNA/RNA to compare species
o 3 domains created bc archaea very diff than bacteria
o 5 kingdoms was inaccurate
• Adhesion: water to surface
• Cohesion: water to water
o Hydrogen bonds connect two waters
• Water’s high specific heat buffered forming molecules from outside heat
• More acidic = lower pH = more H+ ions
o pH lowering means moving left
• More basic = higher pH = less H+ ions
o pH increasing means moving right
• pH=-log[H+]
• Spontaneous rxn: products have less PE than reactants
• Phosphate functional group: associated w chemical energy
• Hydroxyl functional group: makes compounds soluble in water
• Amino acids: supported by amino and carboxyl functional groups, create water as
byproduct, covalent bonds
• Changing anything can alter structure and function
• Alpha helix: 20 structure, Hydrogen bonds, every 4 amino acids
• 30 structure of a protein has sulfhydryl group
• Disulfide bond is stable bc covalent
• Tertiary structure made of: H bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals interactions, ionic
bonds
• Homodimer: protein 40 structure made of 2 identical subunits
• Heterotrimer: protein made of 3 different subunits
• Regulated proteins are activated in presence of something
,• Molecular chaperones fold proteins
• Carbohydrate formula: (CH2O)n
• Carbs are hydrophilic bc of carbonyl and hydroxyl
• Beta groups sometimes have monosaccharides flip to fit
o C1 and C4 hydroxyl groups form polysaccharide backbones
• Alpha chains for E storage
• Beta chains for structure
• Hydrogen bonds connect cellulose/chitin
• NAG in chitin and peptidoglycan
o Stronger in peptidoglycan
• NAM supports peptidoglycan via peptide bonds
• RNA has OH on C2
• Phosphodiester bonds link monomers
• Things added on 3’ side always
• Activated nucleotides have 3 Phosphates
• AT two H bonds; GC 3 H bonds
• 2 nm between two antiparallel strands of DNA
o Width of helix
• .34 nm between each nucleotide
• 3.4 nm is one complete turn of the helix
• RNA can hold info, self-replicate, and catalyze rxns
• Hydrophilic heads: polar & charged group, phosphate group, glycerol
o Glycerol also in triglycerides
• Functional groups make steroid molecules amphipathic and reactive
• Lipids can store E, give structure, and chemically signal
• Small, nonpolar molecules move most easily across cell membrane
• Most permeable: many, unsaturated, low cholesterol, high temp
• Hypertonic: water flows out
• Hypotonic: water flows in
• Liposome: lipid structure of water flow
• Nonpolar amino acids in phospholipid bilayer
• Carbs bound to integral protein recognize cells
• Size and charge determine channel protein’s pass-ability
• Electrochemical equilibrium: when concentration gradient equally opposed by electrical
gradient
• Carrier proteins undergo facilitated diffusion
• After ATP à ADP, three sodium ions move outside
• Active transport needs E to move something against concentration gradient
o Keeps ions not in equilibrium
o Maintains concentration gradients
• Hooke: microscopically saw cork cells
, • Leevanhaek: better microscope and functional units (cells)
• Schwann: animal tissue and named FU a cell
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• Molecular evolution uses RNA sequence
• Natural selection seen by Darwin and Wallace
• Bonds form during an endothermic rxn
• Acids donate H+; bases receive H+
• Acidic means – charge R group
• Basic means + charge R group
• Nonpolar means uncharged and has no O
• Polar means uncharged and has O
• Alpha helix
o Linkage depends on C1 orientation
• Beta pleated sheet
o Linkage depends on C1 orientation
• Denatured: folded wrong so protein doesn’t work (correctly)
• Isoprenes bind to a hydrocarbon isoprenoid chain
o Saturated: single bond
o Unsaturated: double bond
• Fats: ester link covalently, form from dehydration, and store E
• Ring structure is C1 carbonyl group receiving H and C5 hydroxyl giving H
• Evolution is a pattern; natural selection is a process
• Acid: - amino acid R group
• Base: - amino acid R group
• Nonpolar: no charge, no oxygen amino acid R group
• Polar: no charge, has oxygen amino acid R group
• Cysteine makes sulfhydryl disulfide bonds
• Polysaccharides give structural support
• Phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides
o Bind the 3’ Carbon to a 5’ phosphate group
• Hypertonic solution makes cell shrink and move outside; hypotonic solution makes cell
swell and move inside
• Selective permeability from the size of pore of channel protein and charge of amino
acids lining the pore
Previous exam 2:
• Prokaryote genetic material is in nucleoid
• Internal membrane complexes of bacteria photosynthesize
• Translation in eukaryotic rough ER
• Mitochondria in plants and animals bc endosymbiotic theory
• Nucleolus has ribosomes and RNA
• Golgi forms lysosomes from endosomes
