Introduction to Philosophy Final Exam
(StraighterLine): Questions & Answers: Guaranteed
APlus Guide
/. Validity - Answer-if the premises are true then the conclusion is true
ex:
/.Invalidity - Answer-if the premises are true then the conclusion isn't necessarily true
ex:
/.Soundness - Answer-an argument where it is valid and its premises are true
ex:
/.Unsoundness - Answer-an argument that is valid but one or more of its premises are
false
ex:
/.Counterexample - Answer-A description of possible situations where each premise is
true, but the conclusion is false; does not have to be completely realistic.
/.Question-Begging Argument - Answer-an argument that hasn't proven anything, aka
the conclusion equals one of the premises
ex:
/.Methodism in Epistemology - Answer-We cannot know whether we know something if
we don't know how we know
ex: Descartes argument on evil demons
/.Particularism in Epistemology - Answer-We can know something without knowing how
we know it
ex: Moore's argument on having hands
/.Skepticism - Answer-There is absolute, limited, and external world. Absolute says we
cannot have knowledge of anything. Limited says we cannot have a particular type of
knowledge. External world says we cannot have knowledge other than facts on current
existence and mental states.
ex:
absolute-
limited-
external world-
, /.Moorean Shift - Answer-The first premise is the opposite of the conclusion of the
opponent's argument. This premise is used to reason against one of opponent's
premises.
ex:
/.Testimony - Answer-evidence obtained from the reports of others
ex: hearing about what happened in class
/.Miracle (Hume's Definition) - Answer-a violation of the laws of nature
ex:
/.Necessitation Conception of Law of Nature - Answer-a law of nature is a necessary
regularity
ex:water will boil at 100 C and 70 PSI
/.Humean Conception of Law of Nature - Answer-a law of nature is a well-established
regularity, something observed over and over again without finding discrepancy
ex: observing over and over that water boils at 100C
/.Induction - Answer-If in all previous observed cases, a statement holds true, then it will
continue to hold true in all observed cases and all future observed cases
ex: emeralds are found to be green
/.Natural Theology - Answer-The study of God through ordinary experiences and
philosophical argument.
EX: Anselm's ontological argument, argues that God exists in understanding and reality
based on the premise that there is no greater conceivable being than God.
/.Reductio Ad Absurdum - Answer-An argument that assumes some principle and
shows that it leads to a contradiction; because there are no true contradictions, the
assumption must be false.
EX:
1) Suppose that a square circle was possible
2) Because it is square, it will have four 90 degree corners
3) And because it is circle, it will have no 90 degree corners
4) (2) and (3) contradict each other
C) So a square circle is not possible
/.Inference to Best Explanation (or Abduction) - Answer-If a statement provides the
simplest most comprehensive explanation of some surprising phenomenon, then you
are justified in believing it. EX:
/.Fideism - Answer-The belief that faith is independent of or adversarial to reason.
EX: Pascal's wager
(StraighterLine): Questions & Answers: Guaranteed
APlus Guide
/. Validity - Answer-if the premises are true then the conclusion is true
ex:
/.Invalidity - Answer-if the premises are true then the conclusion isn't necessarily true
ex:
/.Soundness - Answer-an argument where it is valid and its premises are true
ex:
/.Unsoundness - Answer-an argument that is valid but one or more of its premises are
false
ex:
/.Counterexample - Answer-A description of possible situations where each premise is
true, but the conclusion is false; does not have to be completely realistic.
/.Question-Begging Argument - Answer-an argument that hasn't proven anything, aka
the conclusion equals one of the premises
ex:
/.Methodism in Epistemology - Answer-We cannot know whether we know something if
we don't know how we know
ex: Descartes argument on evil demons
/.Particularism in Epistemology - Answer-We can know something without knowing how
we know it
ex: Moore's argument on having hands
/.Skepticism - Answer-There is absolute, limited, and external world. Absolute says we
cannot have knowledge of anything. Limited says we cannot have a particular type of
knowledge. External world says we cannot have knowledge other than facts on current
existence and mental states.
ex:
absolute-
limited-
external world-
, /.Moorean Shift - Answer-The first premise is the opposite of the conclusion of the
opponent's argument. This premise is used to reason against one of opponent's
premises.
ex:
/.Testimony - Answer-evidence obtained from the reports of others
ex: hearing about what happened in class
/.Miracle (Hume's Definition) - Answer-a violation of the laws of nature
ex:
/.Necessitation Conception of Law of Nature - Answer-a law of nature is a necessary
regularity
ex:water will boil at 100 C and 70 PSI
/.Humean Conception of Law of Nature - Answer-a law of nature is a well-established
regularity, something observed over and over again without finding discrepancy
ex: observing over and over that water boils at 100C
/.Induction - Answer-If in all previous observed cases, a statement holds true, then it will
continue to hold true in all observed cases and all future observed cases
ex: emeralds are found to be green
/.Natural Theology - Answer-The study of God through ordinary experiences and
philosophical argument.
EX: Anselm's ontological argument, argues that God exists in understanding and reality
based on the premise that there is no greater conceivable being than God.
/.Reductio Ad Absurdum - Answer-An argument that assumes some principle and
shows that it leads to a contradiction; because there are no true contradictions, the
assumption must be false.
EX:
1) Suppose that a square circle was possible
2) Because it is square, it will have four 90 degree corners
3) And because it is circle, it will have no 90 degree corners
4) (2) and (3) contradict each other
C) So a square circle is not possible
/.Inference to Best Explanation (or Abduction) - Answer-If a statement provides the
simplest most comprehensive explanation of some surprising phenomenon, then you
are justified in believing it. EX:
/.Fideism - Answer-The belief that faith is independent of or adversarial to reason.
EX: Pascal's wager
