PSIO 305 REVISION EXAM 2025/2026 QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Hypocortisolism as a risk factor for PTSD - ✔✔-low cortisol level before or shortly
after the traumatic event is predictive of subsequent PTSD
-high levels of cortisol associated with low incidence of PTSD
-high doses of corticosterone reduces subsequent PTSD in animal models
✔✔Genetic influences on PTSD - ✔✔-Monozygotic twins have significantly higher
concordance for PTSD than dizygotic twins
-estimated 30% heritability
-genes associated with HPA axis are associated with PTSD
✔✔Epigenetic influences on PTSD - ✔✔-previous experience (childhood trauma, or
repeated trauma) may alter the genome epigenetically, conferring PTSD susceptibility
✔✔Activation of beta2 receptors on blood vessels in muscle - ✔✔-causes slow and mild
vasodilation
✔✔Dexamethasone suppression test (DST) - ✔✔Used to assess adrenal gland function
by measuring how cortisol levels change in response to an injection of dexamethasone
dexamethasone -> provides negative feedback to pituitary gland to suppress secretion
of ACTH
✔✔PTSD response to DST - ✔✔-increased suppression of cortisol compared to healthy
individuals
✔✔31 segments of the spinal cord - ✔✔1. cervical: 8
2. thoracic: 12
3. Lumbar: 5
4. Sacral: 5
5. Coccygeal: 1
-each segment has a pair of nerves
,✔✔Dorsal and Ventral roots of the spinal cord - ✔✔Dorsal root -> carry afferent sensory
information
Dorsal ganglia -> contains cell bodies of somatic and visceral afferent neurons
Ventral root -> carry efferent information from the CNS to muscles and glands
Autonomic ganglion -> contains cell bodies of post-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Two types of nerve tissue - ✔✔Gray matter -> unmyelinated nerve cell bodies
-clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are nuclei
-dendrites
-axon terminals
White matter -> myelinated axons
-axon bundles connecting CNS regions are tracts
-contains very few cell bodies
✔✔Connections for afferent somatic neurons and afferent visceral neurons -
✔✔Connect with interneurons in the dorsal horns
✔✔Contents of ventral and lateral horns of the spinal cord - ✔✔Ventral horns ->
contains cell bodies of efferent neurons
Lateral horns -> contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Direction of info in the descending, ascending and propriospinal tracts -
✔✔Ascending tracts -> take sensory info to the brain
Descending tracts -> carry signals from the brain
Propriospinal tracts -> stay in the spinal cord
✔✔Spinal reflexes - ✔✔-Integrated in the spinal cord -> response is initiated without
input from the brain
-stimulus triggers response from sensory cell that carries info to interneuron that
synapses with the spinal cord where the info is directly relayed to effector
✔✔Connections for the different parts of the brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla
oblongata - ✔✔midbrain -> connects to forebrain
pons -> connects to cerebellum
medulla oblongata -> connects to spinal cord
,✔✔What the reticular formation controls - ✔✔-wakefulness, sleep, muscle tone, pain
modulation
✔✔Cranial nerves and their types - ✔✔1. Olfactory - Sensory
2. Optic - Sensory
3. Oculomotor - motor
4. Trochlear - motor
5. Trigeminal - mixed
6. Abducens - motor
7. Facial - mixed
8. Vestibulocochlear - sensory
9. Glossopharyngeal - mixed
10. Vagus - mixed
11. Spinal Accessory - motor
12. Hypoglossal - motor
✔✔Pathway through which peripheral epinephrine modulates brain function -
✔✔Peripheral epinephrine acts on visceral sensory component of Vagus nerve
Connects to the NTS w
✔✔Types of signals and what they effect through the vagal nerve neuroendocrine
immune interaction - ✔✔Immune signals and endocrine signals travel through Vagal
afferents to the NTS
Affects emotion and autonomic control
✔✔Vagal mediation of gut feeling - ✔✔Vagal afferents differentially modulate innate
anxiety and learned fear
✔✔Functions of the medulla oblongata - ✔✔Contains somatosensory and corticospinal
(pyramids) tracts
Controls involuntary functions such as blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and
vomiting
✔✔Functions of the Pons - ✔✔Relays info between cerebellum and cerebrum
Coordinates control of breathing together with centers in medulla
✔✔Functions of the midbrain - ✔✔Relays signals for auditory and visual reflexes
Controls eye movement via oculomotor (CN III) and Trochlear (CN IV) nuclei
, ✔✔Location and function of the Reticular Formation - ✔✔Loosely defined network of
highly interconnected nuclei in the brain stem
Functions:
-Somatic motor control
-Cardiovascular control
-Coordinates breathing
-Modulates pain
-Modulates brain state
✔✔Functions of diffuse neuromodulatory systems - ✔✔-Project axons to large areas of
the brain and release neuromodulators that modulate diverse brain functions
-brain stem reticular formation is the main source of diffuse modulatory systems
✔✔Neuromodulators vs Classic neurotransmitters - ✔✔Neuromodulators are special
neurotransmitters that are not removed from synaptic cleft quickly and can diffuse a
long distance to influence more than one neuron for a sustained period of time
Classic -> undergo rapid reuptake or breakdown and therefore act locally at the specific
synapses
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Noradrenergic diffuse modulatory system
- ✔✔Function: attention, arousal, sleep-wake cycle, learning, memory, anxiety, pain and
mood
Origin: Locus coeruleus of the pons
Terminates: Cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebellum,
midbrain, spinal cord
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Serotonergic diffuse modulatory systems
- ✔✔Function:
-Lower nuclei -> pain, locomotion
-Upper nuclei -> sleep-wake cycle, mood and emotional behaviors (aggression or
depression)
Origin: Raphe nuclei along brain stem midline
Terminates:
-lower nuclei to spinal cord
-upper nuclei to most of brain
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Dopaminergic diffuse modulatory system
- ✔✔Function: motor control, 'reward' centers linked to addictive behaviors
ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Hypocortisolism as a risk factor for PTSD - ✔✔-low cortisol level before or shortly
after the traumatic event is predictive of subsequent PTSD
-high levels of cortisol associated with low incidence of PTSD
-high doses of corticosterone reduces subsequent PTSD in animal models
✔✔Genetic influences on PTSD - ✔✔-Monozygotic twins have significantly higher
concordance for PTSD than dizygotic twins
-estimated 30% heritability
-genes associated with HPA axis are associated with PTSD
✔✔Epigenetic influences on PTSD - ✔✔-previous experience (childhood trauma, or
repeated trauma) may alter the genome epigenetically, conferring PTSD susceptibility
✔✔Activation of beta2 receptors on blood vessels in muscle - ✔✔-causes slow and mild
vasodilation
✔✔Dexamethasone suppression test (DST) - ✔✔Used to assess adrenal gland function
by measuring how cortisol levels change in response to an injection of dexamethasone
dexamethasone -> provides negative feedback to pituitary gland to suppress secretion
of ACTH
✔✔PTSD response to DST - ✔✔-increased suppression of cortisol compared to healthy
individuals
✔✔31 segments of the spinal cord - ✔✔1. cervical: 8
2. thoracic: 12
3. Lumbar: 5
4. Sacral: 5
5. Coccygeal: 1
-each segment has a pair of nerves
,✔✔Dorsal and Ventral roots of the spinal cord - ✔✔Dorsal root -> carry afferent sensory
information
Dorsal ganglia -> contains cell bodies of somatic and visceral afferent neurons
Ventral root -> carry efferent information from the CNS to muscles and glands
Autonomic ganglion -> contains cell bodies of post-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Two types of nerve tissue - ✔✔Gray matter -> unmyelinated nerve cell bodies
-clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are nuclei
-dendrites
-axon terminals
White matter -> myelinated axons
-axon bundles connecting CNS regions are tracts
-contains very few cell bodies
✔✔Connections for afferent somatic neurons and afferent visceral neurons -
✔✔Connect with interneurons in the dorsal horns
✔✔Contents of ventral and lateral horns of the spinal cord - ✔✔Ventral horns ->
contains cell bodies of efferent neurons
Lateral horns -> contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Direction of info in the descending, ascending and propriospinal tracts -
✔✔Ascending tracts -> take sensory info to the brain
Descending tracts -> carry signals from the brain
Propriospinal tracts -> stay in the spinal cord
✔✔Spinal reflexes - ✔✔-Integrated in the spinal cord -> response is initiated without
input from the brain
-stimulus triggers response from sensory cell that carries info to interneuron that
synapses with the spinal cord where the info is directly relayed to effector
✔✔Connections for the different parts of the brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla
oblongata - ✔✔midbrain -> connects to forebrain
pons -> connects to cerebellum
medulla oblongata -> connects to spinal cord
,✔✔What the reticular formation controls - ✔✔-wakefulness, sleep, muscle tone, pain
modulation
✔✔Cranial nerves and their types - ✔✔1. Olfactory - Sensory
2. Optic - Sensory
3. Oculomotor - motor
4. Trochlear - motor
5. Trigeminal - mixed
6. Abducens - motor
7. Facial - mixed
8. Vestibulocochlear - sensory
9. Glossopharyngeal - mixed
10. Vagus - mixed
11. Spinal Accessory - motor
12. Hypoglossal - motor
✔✔Pathway through which peripheral epinephrine modulates brain function -
✔✔Peripheral epinephrine acts on visceral sensory component of Vagus nerve
Connects to the NTS w
✔✔Types of signals and what they effect through the vagal nerve neuroendocrine
immune interaction - ✔✔Immune signals and endocrine signals travel through Vagal
afferents to the NTS
Affects emotion and autonomic control
✔✔Vagal mediation of gut feeling - ✔✔Vagal afferents differentially modulate innate
anxiety and learned fear
✔✔Functions of the medulla oblongata - ✔✔Contains somatosensory and corticospinal
(pyramids) tracts
Controls involuntary functions such as blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and
vomiting
✔✔Functions of the Pons - ✔✔Relays info between cerebellum and cerebrum
Coordinates control of breathing together with centers in medulla
✔✔Functions of the midbrain - ✔✔Relays signals for auditory and visual reflexes
Controls eye movement via oculomotor (CN III) and Trochlear (CN IV) nuclei
, ✔✔Location and function of the Reticular Formation - ✔✔Loosely defined network of
highly interconnected nuclei in the brain stem
Functions:
-Somatic motor control
-Cardiovascular control
-Coordinates breathing
-Modulates pain
-Modulates brain state
✔✔Functions of diffuse neuromodulatory systems - ✔✔-Project axons to large areas of
the brain and release neuromodulators that modulate diverse brain functions
-brain stem reticular formation is the main source of diffuse modulatory systems
✔✔Neuromodulators vs Classic neurotransmitters - ✔✔Neuromodulators are special
neurotransmitters that are not removed from synaptic cleft quickly and can diffuse a
long distance to influence more than one neuron for a sustained period of time
Classic -> undergo rapid reuptake or breakdown and therefore act locally at the specific
synapses
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Noradrenergic diffuse modulatory system
- ✔✔Function: attention, arousal, sleep-wake cycle, learning, memory, anxiety, pain and
mood
Origin: Locus coeruleus of the pons
Terminates: Cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebellum,
midbrain, spinal cord
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Serotonergic diffuse modulatory systems
- ✔✔Function:
-Lower nuclei -> pain, locomotion
-Upper nuclei -> sleep-wake cycle, mood and emotional behaviors (aggression or
depression)
Origin: Raphe nuclei along brain stem midline
Terminates:
-lower nuclei to spinal cord
-upper nuclei to most of brain
✔✔Function, origin, and site of termination for Dopaminergic diffuse modulatory system
- ✔✔Function: motor control, 'reward' centers linked to addictive behaviors
