Philosophy is the systematic study of the foundations of human knowledge
with an emphasis on the conditions of its validity and finding answers to
ultimate questions. While every other science aims at investigating a specific
area of knowledge, such as physics or psychology, philosophy has been
defined as “thinking about thinking.” At the same time, as expressed by its
Greek etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom. Traditionally at least, it is
not the pursuit of knowledge for knowledge’s sake, but rather the attempt to
discover the meaning and purpose of existence, including through
intellectual means, but including also self-reflection, discipline, and religious
practice and inquiry. Though the term philosophy is of Western origin and
implies a kind of investigation typical of western culture, it has its
equivalents in the various other cultures of the world, notably India, China
and the Middle East.
1The Nature of Philosophy
o 1.1Methods and definitions
o 1.2Philosophy as a Worldview
o 1.3Branches, schools and doctrines
1.3.1Branches
1.3.2Schools and doctrines
2History of Philosophy
o 2.1Western philosophy
2.1.1Greco-Roman philosophy
2.1.2Medieval philosophy
2.1.3Early modern philosophy (c. 1600 - c. 1800)
2.1.4Later modern philosophy (c. 1800 - c. 1960)
2.1.5Contemporary philosophy (c. 1960 - present)
2.1.6The Analytic and Continental divide
3Eastern philosophy
o 3.1Indian philosophy
o 3.2Persian philosophy
o 3.3Chinese philosophy
4African philosophy
5Key themes and doctrines in Western Philosophy
o 5.1Metaphysics and epistemology
5.1.1Rationalism and empiricism
5.1.2Kantian philosophy and the rise of idealism
5.1.3Pragmatism
5.1.4The prominence of logic
5.1.5Phenomenology
5.1.6Existentialism
5.1.7The analytic tradition
o 5.2Ethics and political philosophy
5.2.1Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn
5.2.2Human nature and political legitimacy
6Applied philosophy
7Confines of Philosophy
8Philosophers on Philosophy
9See also
o 9.1Areas of philosophy
o 9.2Eras of Philosophy
, 10References
11Further reading
o 11.1Introductions
o 11.2Topical introductions
o 11.3Anthologies
The Nature of Philosophy
Methods and definitions
Philosophy has almost as many definitions as there have been
philosophers, both as a subject matter and an activity. The word is derived
from the ancient Greek word "Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia),which means "love
of wisdom." Though no single definition of philosophy is uncontroversial, and
the field has historically expanded and changed depending upon what kinds
of questions were interesting or relevant in a given era, it is generally agreed
that philosophy is a method, rather than a set of claims, propositions, or
theories. Its investigations are based upon rational thinking, striving to make
no unexamined assumptions and no leaps based on faith or pure analogy.
Different philosophers have had varied ideas about the nature of reason, and
there is also disagreement about the subject matter of philosophy. Some
think that philosophy examines the process of inquiry itself. Others, that
there are essentially philosophical propositions which it is the task of
philosophy to prove. The issue of the definition of philosophy is nowadays
tackled by Metaphilosophy (or the philosophy of philosophy). Modern usage
of the term is extremely broad, covering reflection on every aspect of human
knowledge and the means by which such knowledge can be acquired. In the
contemporary English-speaking academic world, the term is often used
implicitly to refer to analytic philosophy and, in non-English speaking
countries, it often refers implicitly to a different, European strain, continental
philosophy.
Did you know?
Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same
discipline.
Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same
discipline. This earlier tradition remains today in the expression PhD, or
“Philosophiae Doctor” (doctor of philosophy), which is by no means limited to
graduates of philosophy proper, as one can have a PhD in biology, music, or
nursing to name but a few areas of expertise. Similarly, German-speaking
academia still knows the division between “Philosophy I” (philosophy and the
humanities) and “Philosophy II” (the natural sciences).
, Many ancient Greek philosophers distinguished the desire for wisdom from
desires for material things, vices, and the satisfaction of bodily desires. The
definition of wisdom for many ancient Greeks would have been
about virtue and the desire for knowledge as opposed to false opinions.
However, the term is notoriously difficult to define because of the diverse
range of ideas that have been labeled as philosophy. The Penguin Dictionary
of Philosophy defines it as the study of "the most fundamental and general
concepts and principles involved in thought, action, and reality." The Penguin
Encyclopedia says that philosophy differs from science in that philosophy's
questions cannot be answered empirically, and from religion in that
philosophy allows no place for faith or revelation. However, these points are
called into question by the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, which states:
"the late 20th-century… prefers to see philosophical reflection as continuous
with the best practice of any field of intellectual enquiry." Indeed, many of
the speculations of early philosophers in the field of natural
philosophy eventually formed the basis for modern scientific explanations on
a variety of subjects.
Philosophy as a Worldview
A "philosophy" may also refer to a general worldview or to a specific ethic
or belief that can be utterly unrelated to academic philosophical
considerations. This meaning of the term is perhaps as important as the
classical definition, because it affects each human being. Virtually everyone,
knowingly or unknowingly, lives and operates based upon a set of values and
beliefs that are often unexpressed and even unconscious. As a result, the
may easily be incompatible and contradictory, leaving those who maintain
them with a sense of uneasiness. If a man professes that “only money counts
in life,” this is a philosophical stance. However, it is most likely to be at odds
with other convictions held by that same individual, such as a secret passion
for art or love for his family.
Philosophy once competed with theology and mathematics for the title of
“queen of the sciences.” Today, it is often considered empty and useless
speculation, finding no place along practical and technical concerns and
religious or ideological beliefs. However, efforts are being made to remove
philosophy from its crumbling ivory tower and make it into a discipline,
academic or other, that can lead to a clarification of one’s personal opinions
and goals, as well as an informed evaluation of the many issues in public life.
Branches, schools and doctrines
Branches
The ancient Greeks organized the subject into five basic
categories: metaphysics, epistemology and logic, ethics, politics
and aesthetics. This organization of the subject is still partly in use in
Western philosophy today, but the notion of philosophy has become more
with an emphasis on the conditions of its validity and finding answers to
ultimate questions. While every other science aims at investigating a specific
area of knowledge, such as physics or psychology, philosophy has been
defined as “thinking about thinking.” At the same time, as expressed by its
Greek etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom. Traditionally at least, it is
not the pursuit of knowledge for knowledge’s sake, but rather the attempt to
discover the meaning and purpose of existence, including through
intellectual means, but including also self-reflection, discipline, and religious
practice and inquiry. Though the term philosophy is of Western origin and
implies a kind of investigation typical of western culture, it has its
equivalents in the various other cultures of the world, notably India, China
and the Middle East.
1The Nature of Philosophy
o 1.1Methods and definitions
o 1.2Philosophy as a Worldview
o 1.3Branches, schools and doctrines
1.3.1Branches
1.3.2Schools and doctrines
2History of Philosophy
o 2.1Western philosophy
2.1.1Greco-Roman philosophy
2.1.2Medieval philosophy
2.1.3Early modern philosophy (c. 1600 - c. 1800)
2.1.4Later modern philosophy (c. 1800 - c. 1960)
2.1.5Contemporary philosophy (c. 1960 - present)
2.1.6The Analytic and Continental divide
3Eastern philosophy
o 3.1Indian philosophy
o 3.2Persian philosophy
o 3.3Chinese philosophy
4African philosophy
5Key themes and doctrines in Western Philosophy
o 5.1Metaphysics and epistemology
5.1.1Rationalism and empiricism
5.1.2Kantian philosophy and the rise of idealism
5.1.3Pragmatism
5.1.4The prominence of logic
5.1.5Phenomenology
5.1.6Existentialism
5.1.7The analytic tradition
o 5.2Ethics and political philosophy
5.2.1Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn
5.2.2Human nature and political legitimacy
6Applied philosophy
7Confines of Philosophy
8Philosophers on Philosophy
9See also
o 9.1Areas of philosophy
o 9.2Eras of Philosophy
, 10References
11Further reading
o 11.1Introductions
o 11.2Topical introductions
o 11.3Anthologies
The Nature of Philosophy
Methods and definitions
Philosophy has almost as many definitions as there have been
philosophers, both as a subject matter and an activity. The word is derived
from the ancient Greek word "Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia),which means "love
of wisdom." Though no single definition of philosophy is uncontroversial, and
the field has historically expanded and changed depending upon what kinds
of questions were interesting or relevant in a given era, it is generally agreed
that philosophy is a method, rather than a set of claims, propositions, or
theories. Its investigations are based upon rational thinking, striving to make
no unexamined assumptions and no leaps based on faith or pure analogy.
Different philosophers have had varied ideas about the nature of reason, and
there is also disagreement about the subject matter of philosophy. Some
think that philosophy examines the process of inquiry itself. Others, that
there are essentially philosophical propositions which it is the task of
philosophy to prove. The issue of the definition of philosophy is nowadays
tackled by Metaphilosophy (or the philosophy of philosophy). Modern usage
of the term is extremely broad, covering reflection on every aspect of human
knowledge and the means by which such knowledge can be acquired. In the
contemporary English-speaking academic world, the term is often used
implicitly to refer to analytic philosophy and, in non-English speaking
countries, it often refers implicitly to a different, European strain, continental
philosophy.
Did you know?
Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same
discipline.
Until the Renaissance, 'philosophy' and 'science' were considered the same
discipline. This earlier tradition remains today in the expression PhD, or
“Philosophiae Doctor” (doctor of philosophy), which is by no means limited to
graduates of philosophy proper, as one can have a PhD in biology, music, or
nursing to name but a few areas of expertise. Similarly, German-speaking
academia still knows the division between “Philosophy I” (philosophy and the
humanities) and “Philosophy II” (the natural sciences).
, Many ancient Greek philosophers distinguished the desire for wisdom from
desires for material things, vices, and the satisfaction of bodily desires. The
definition of wisdom for many ancient Greeks would have been
about virtue and the desire for knowledge as opposed to false opinions.
However, the term is notoriously difficult to define because of the diverse
range of ideas that have been labeled as philosophy. The Penguin Dictionary
of Philosophy defines it as the study of "the most fundamental and general
concepts and principles involved in thought, action, and reality." The Penguin
Encyclopedia says that philosophy differs from science in that philosophy's
questions cannot be answered empirically, and from religion in that
philosophy allows no place for faith or revelation. However, these points are
called into question by the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, which states:
"the late 20th-century… prefers to see philosophical reflection as continuous
with the best practice of any field of intellectual enquiry." Indeed, many of
the speculations of early philosophers in the field of natural
philosophy eventually formed the basis for modern scientific explanations on
a variety of subjects.
Philosophy as a Worldview
A "philosophy" may also refer to a general worldview or to a specific ethic
or belief that can be utterly unrelated to academic philosophical
considerations. This meaning of the term is perhaps as important as the
classical definition, because it affects each human being. Virtually everyone,
knowingly or unknowingly, lives and operates based upon a set of values and
beliefs that are often unexpressed and even unconscious. As a result, the
may easily be incompatible and contradictory, leaving those who maintain
them with a sense of uneasiness. If a man professes that “only money counts
in life,” this is a philosophical stance. However, it is most likely to be at odds
with other convictions held by that same individual, such as a secret passion
for art or love for his family.
Philosophy once competed with theology and mathematics for the title of
“queen of the sciences.” Today, it is often considered empty and useless
speculation, finding no place along practical and technical concerns and
religious or ideological beliefs. However, efforts are being made to remove
philosophy from its crumbling ivory tower and make it into a discipline,
academic or other, that can lead to a clarification of one’s personal opinions
and goals, as well as an informed evaluation of the many issues in public life.
Branches, schools and doctrines
Branches
The ancient Greeks organized the subject into five basic
categories: metaphysics, epistemology and logic, ethics, politics
and aesthetics. This organization of the subject is still partly in use in
Western philosophy today, but the notion of philosophy has become more
