ORGANIZED NOTES OF LECTURES
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY 3: SOCIETY,
SOCIAL ACTION AND INEQUALITY
Week 1:
1.1 Naturalism 3
1.2 Constructivism 6
1.3 Definitions of theory 9
Week 2:
2.1 The sociology of Max Weber 13
2.2 Max Weber on rationalization 16
Week 3:
3.1 Three main approaches in sociology 21
3.2 Exchange and rational choice theory 25
3.3 Causality and social mechanisms 28
Week 4:
4.1 Substantialist vs relational thinking 31
4.2 Relational thinking in sociology 34
Week 5:
5.1 Social network theory 37
5.2 The sociology of knowledge 39
Week 6:
6.1 Postcolonial theory 43
1
,Week 1: Naturalism and
constructivism, and the definitions of
theory
1.1 Naturalism 4
1.1.1 An example 4
1.1.2 Core assumptions 4
1.1.3 Challenges 5
1.1.4 Abandoning naturalism 6
1.2 Constructivism 7
1.2.1 Definition 7
1.2.2 Nature of the object of study 7
1.2.3 Relation between researcher and object of study 7
1.2.4 Philosophical debate 8
1.2.5 What does this mean for sociology? 9
1.3 Definitions of theory 10
1.3.1 What is ‘theory’? 10
1.3.2 Who owns theory? 10
1.3.3 Scientific theory 10
1.3.4 Theory in sociology 11
1.3.5 Relevance 11
2
,1.1 Naturalism
1.1.1 An example
A key topic in sociology is inequality, including issues like racism, sexism, and homophobia. But
how do we know these forms of discrimination actually exist? One example is racial discrimination
in the job market. Studies show that people of different racial backgrounds receive different
responses when applying for the same job. But what makes this research reliable? Why are these
studies so convincing?
The answer lies in field experiments, which are considered the gold standard of science. In these
experiments, researchers manipulate one factor (the independent variable) and observe its effect
on another factor (the dependent variable). In this case:
- Independent variable: The applicant’s race or ethnicity
- Dependent variable: Whether they receive a response to their job application
If the results support the hypothesis that race influences hiring decisions, this is an example of
thinking within the naturalist perspective. Naturalism assumes that reality can be studied through
scientific methods. To accept these findings, you must accept certain naturalist assumptions.
1.1.2 Core assumptions
1. Realism
Realism assumes that the world exists independently of our experiences. In our example, it means
that discrimination in the job market is real: it exists whether or not we believe in it.
2. Empiricism
Empiricism suggests that we can understand the world by observing and reflecting on it. We gain
knowledge by collecting and analyzing real-world data.
3. Reality is patterned and structured
Naturalists believe that the world follows patterns. Discrimination is not random: it happens due to
specific social structures that make it visible and measurable.
4. Method of choice: Hypothesis testing & experiments
Naturalists use experiments, observations, and hypothesis testing to uncover cause-and-effect
relationships in social life. They rely on the correspondence theory of truth, which assumes that
facts exist independently of human interpretation.
5. Separation between facts and values
Naturalism assumes that facts exist independent of morality. A sociologist’s job is to study
discrimination, not to make moral judgments about it.
6. General laws over individual cases
Naturalists prefer to make general statements about society rather than focusing on individual
cases. They aim to identify broader social patterns that apply to many situations.
3
, 1.1.3 Challenges
The following challenges relate to both natural sciences and social sciences, but we will focus on
their impact in the social sciences:
1. Social vs natural phenomena:
Are social phenomena ontologically similar to natural phenomena?
One key question in sociology is whether social phenomena (eg discrimination, cultural beliefs)
function the same way as natural phenomena (eg gravity, chemical reactions).
- In natural sciences, cause-and-effect relationships are clear
- In social sciences, things are more complex because they involve meanings and
interpretations.
This is where the Thomas Theorem comes in: “If people define situations as real, they are real in
their consequences”. For example, in witch trials, people believed witches were real, even if they
weren’t. This belief had real consequences, such as people being executed. So, while natural and
social sciences both study patterns, social sciences deal with human interpretation, which makes
causality less straightforward.
2. Structure of reality:
Is the structure of reality patterned?
This question relates to ontology (the study of what is). Is the world naturally structured, or do
humans simply interpret it as structured?
- Naturalism assumes that the universe operates in an ordered way, similar to a mechanical
clock: a concept called the clockwork universe: in this view, scientists' job is to discover
how the "clock" works, and once they do, they can predict the future with 100% accuracy.
This idea became popular with secularization, as people started believing science could
explain everything.
However, some argue that we don’t actually know if reality is structured—we may just be
interpreting patterns and assuming they are part of a deeper system. In sociology, this raises the
question: “Are social patterns truly fixed structures, or are they created by human interpretation?”.
3. Perceiving reality through senses:
Can we directly perceive reality through our senses?
This is an epistemological question (about knowledge). Naturalism assumes that we can observe
reality directly through our senses.
- John Locke’s idea of ‘Tabula Rasa’ states that people are born as blank slates with no
knowledge, gaining everything from sensory experience. However, we now know this is not
true. Humans (and animals) are born with biological traits that shape how they understand
the world.
Beyond biology, society also affects perception:
- Different people experience reality differently based on their culture, background, and
beliefs. In sociology, we need theories to even recognize social patterns in the first place.
This is called theory-laden observation: our understanding of reality is always shaped by our
perspective and interests. Because of this, it is difficult to separate objective observation from
interpretation.
4
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY 3: SOCIETY,
SOCIAL ACTION AND INEQUALITY
Week 1:
1.1 Naturalism 3
1.2 Constructivism 6
1.3 Definitions of theory 9
Week 2:
2.1 The sociology of Max Weber 13
2.2 Max Weber on rationalization 16
Week 3:
3.1 Three main approaches in sociology 21
3.2 Exchange and rational choice theory 25
3.3 Causality and social mechanisms 28
Week 4:
4.1 Substantialist vs relational thinking 31
4.2 Relational thinking in sociology 34
Week 5:
5.1 Social network theory 37
5.2 The sociology of knowledge 39
Week 6:
6.1 Postcolonial theory 43
1
,Week 1: Naturalism and
constructivism, and the definitions of
theory
1.1 Naturalism 4
1.1.1 An example 4
1.1.2 Core assumptions 4
1.1.3 Challenges 5
1.1.4 Abandoning naturalism 6
1.2 Constructivism 7
1.2.1 Definition 7
1.2.2 Nature of the object of study 7
1.2.3 Relation between researcher and object of study 7
1.2.4 Philosophical debate 8
1.2.5 What does this mean for sociology? 9
1.3 Definitions of theory 10
1.3.1 What is ‘theory’? 10
1.3.2 Who owns theory? 10
1.3.3 Scientific theory 10
1.3.4 Theory in sociology 11
1.3.5 Relevance 11
2
,1.1 Naturalism
1.1.1 An example
A key topic in sociology is inequality, including issues like racism, sexism, and homophobia. But
how do we know these forms of discrimination actually exist? One example is racial discrimination
in the job market. Studies show that people of different racial backgrounds receive different
responses when applying for the same job. But what makes this research reliable? Why are these
studies so convincing?
The answer lies in field experiments, which are considered the gold standard of science. In these
experiments, researchers manipulate one factor (the independent variable) and observe its effect
on another factor (the dependent variable). In this case:
- Independent variable: The applicant’s race or ethnicity
- Dependent variable: Whether they receive a response to their job application
If the results support the hypothesis that race influences hiring decisions, this is an example of
thinking within the naturalist perspective. Naturalism assumes that reality can be studied through
scientific methods. To accept these findings, you must accept certain naturalist assumptions.
1.1.2 Core assumptions
1. Realism
Realism assumes that the world exists independently of our experiences. In our example, it means
that discrimination in the job market is real: it exists whether or not we believe in it.
2. Empiricism
Empiricism suggests that we can understand the world by observing and reflecting on it. We gain
knowledge by collecting and analyzing real-world data.
3. Reality is patterned and structured
Naturalists believe that the world follows patterns. Discrimination is not random: it happens due to
specific social structures that make it visible and measurable.
4. Method of choice: Hypothesis testing & experiments
Naturalists use experiments, observations, and hypothesis testing to uncover cause-and-effect
relationships in social life. They rely on the correspondence theory of truth, which assumes that
facts exist independently of human interpretation.
5. Separation between facts and values
Naturalism assumes that facts exist independent of morality. A sociologist’s job is to study
discrimination, not to make moral judgments about it.
6. General laws over individual cases
Naturalists prefer to make general statements about society rather than focusing on individual
cases. They aim to identify broader social patterns that apply to many situations.
3
, 1.1.3 Challenges
The following challenges relate to both natural sciences and social sciences, but we will focus on
their impact in the social sciences:
1. Social vs natural phenomena:
Are social phenomena ontologically similar to natural phenomena?
One key question in sociology is whether social phenomena (eg discrimination, cultural beliefs)
function the same way as natural phenomena (eg gravity, chemical reactions).
- In natural sciences, cause-and-effect relationships are clear
- In social sciences, things are more complex because they involve meanings and
interpretations.
This is where the Thomas Theorem comes in: “If people define situations as real, they are real in
their consequences”. For example, in witch trials, people believed witches were real, even if they
weren’t. This belief had real consequences, such as people being executed. So, while natural and
social sciences both study patterns, social sciences deal with human interpretation, which makes
causality less straightforward.
2. Structure of reality:
Is the structure of reality patterned?
This question relates to ontology (the study of what is). Is the world naturally structured, or do
humans simply interpret it as structured?
- Naturalism assumes that the universe operates in an ordered way, similar to a mechanical
clock: a concept called the clockwork universe: in this view, scientists' job is to discover
how the "clock" works, and once they do, they can predict the future with 100% accuracy.
This idea became popular with secularization, as people started believing science could
explain everything.
However, some argue that we don’t actually know if reality is structured—we may just be
interpreting patterns and assuming they are part of a deeper system. In sociology, this raises the
question: “Are social patterns truly fixed structures, or are they created by human interpretation?”.
3. Perceiving reality through senses:
Can we directly perceive reality through our senses?
This is an epistemological question (about knowledge). Naturalism assumes that we can observe
reality directly through our senses.
- John Locke’s idea of ‘Tabula Rasa’ states that people are born as blank slates with no
knowledge, gaining everything from sensory experience. However, we now know this is not
true. Humans (and animals) are born with biological traits that shape how they understand
the world.
Beyond biology, society also affects perception:
- Different people experience reality differently based on their culture, background, and
beliefs. In sociology, we need theories to even recognize social patterns in the first place.
This is called theory-laden observation: our understanding of reality is always shaped by our
perspective and interests. Because of this, it is difficult to separate objective observation from
interpretation.
4
