COGSCI 115 STUDY GUIDE EXAM QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS GRADED A+ 2025/2026
MRI/magnetic resonance imaging - structure
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that
distinguish among different types of soft tissue
helps see structures within the brain
fMRI/functional magnetic resonance imaging - function
measures level of activity in different parts of the brain
better than PET
very sensitive + easily skewed
measures BOLD: difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flow to the
brain
1990s: event related fMRI able to measure the BOLD signal
associated with individual rapidly occurring neural events
- parahippocampus + right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex correlated with levels of
memory performance for individual events
VBM/voxel based morphometry - structure
uses MRI scans to reveal differences between groups' regional brain volume and tissue
concentration
- posterior hippocampi of London taxicab drivers larger than control
DTI/diffusion tensor imaging + FA/fractional anisotropy - structure?
DA
type of MRI
sensitive to the hindrance of water diffusion
measures white matter tracts in brain, axon density
FA
DTI-derived quantitative measure of the directional
dependence of water diffusion
,reflects anatomical features of white matter, such as axon caliber, fiber density and
myelination
f/ALFF (fractional amplitude of low frequency fluctuations) - function?
measure spontaneous fluctuations in BOLD-fMRI signal intensity for a given region in
the resting brain
fNIRS/functional near-infrared spectroscopy - function
noninvasive optical imaging technique that measures changes inhemoglobin (Hb)
concentrations within the brain
higher temporal resolution than fMRI but inferior spatial resolution and penetration depth
advantage: robustness to motion, relatively lower cost, as well as small size and high
level of portability makes it an ideal candidate for multimodality studies
rTMS/repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation - intense pulse of magnetic energy is
sent through a coil placed on the surface of the skull, resulting in the electrical firing of
neurons beneath the scalp
can reduce symptoms of depression/OCD
Penfield studies - electrical stimulation of association areas of brain during open brain
surgery while patient is fully conscious
name of topological map of body surface found in post-central gyrus
ECT/electroconvulsive therapy - treatment for major depression
electrodes placed on patient's scalp, jolt of electricity is applied for 1/25th of a second =
brief seizure
may stimulate neurogenesis and new synaptic connections in hippocampus and
amygdala
advantages: FAST improvement with symptoms than w meds, save many from suicide
disadvantages: prolonged use can cause brain damage, high relapse rate
tDCS/transcranial direct current stimulation - potential new treatment for depression
weak current applied to scalp of left side of dorsolateral prefrontal
safer than ECT
, deep brain stimulation - potential new treatments for depression
neurosurgical procedure
place neurostimulator that sends electrical impulses through implanted electrodes to
specific places in brain
optogenetics - insert opsin genes into neurons
causes neuron to manufacture light-sensitive opsin proteins and incorporate them into
the membrane = neuron can be activated by particular wavelength of light
can produce hallucinations, false memories, new memories in mice + birds
can be used for identification of specific neurons/neural networks, treat
depression/chronic pain/seizures/restoration of vision
hedonic approach - focuses on pleasure attainment and pain avoidance
eudaimonic approach - focuses on meaning and self-realization--the degree to which a
person is fully functioning
Maslow's theory of self-actualization - early pioneer of eudaimonic approach in Western
psychology was Abraham Maslow
psychology should study the healthiest, most productive and creative people
created hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top
self actualization = drive to realize one's talents and fulfill one's potentials to express
one's true self and develop a sense of connectedness with the broader universe
largely taken from RM Bucke's Cosmic Consciousness
- human beings are slowly evolving towards a higher state of being
Maslow's hierarchy of needs + supporting research - lower levels focus on physical +
affective components of happiness
higher levels include more cognitive components
lower needs must be met before people are prompted to try to meet higher needs
financial satisfaction is predictive of subjective well-being in poorer nations
home-life satisfaction and self-esteem matter in more wealthy nations
ANSWERS GRADED A+ 2025/2026
MRI/magnetic resonance imaging - structure
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that
distinguish among different types of soft tissue
helps see structures within the brain
fMRI/functional magnetic resonance imaging - function
measures level of activity in different parts of the brain
better than PET
very sensitive + easily skewed
measures BOLD: difference between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flow to the
brain
1990s: event related fMRI able to measure the BOLD signal
associated with individual rapidly occurring neural events
- parahippocampus + right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex correlated with levels of
memory performance for individual events
VBM/voxel based morphometry - structure
uses MRI scans to reveal differences between groups' regional brain volume and tissue
concentration
- posterior hippocampi of London taxicab drivers larger than control
DTI/diffusion tensor imaging + FA/fractional anisotropy - structure?
DA
type of MRI
sensitive to the hindrance of water diffusion
measures white matter tracts in brain, axon density
FA
DTI-derived quantitative measure of the directional
dependence of water diffusion
,reflects anatomical features of white matter, such as axon caliber, fiber density and
myelination
f/ALFF (fractional amplitude of low frequency fluctuations) - function?
measure spontaneous fluctuations in BOLD-fMRI signal intensity for a given region in
the resting brain
fNIRS/functional near-infrared spectroscopy - function
noninvasive optical imaging technique that measures changes inhemoglobin (Hb)
concentrations within the brain
higher temporal resolution than fMRI but inferior spatial resolution and penetration depth
advantage: robustness to motion, relatively lower cost, as well as small size and high
level of portability makes it an ideal candidate for multimodality studies
rTMS/repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation - intense pulse of magnetic energy is
sent through a coil placed on the surface of the skull, resulting in the electrical firing of
neurons beneath the scalp
can reduce symptoms of depression/OCD
Penfield studies - electrical stimulation of association areas of brain during open brain
surgery while patient is fully conscious
name of topological map of body surface found in post-central gyrus
ECT/electroconvulsive therapy - treatment for major depression
electrodes placed on patient's scalp, jolt of electricity is applied for 1/25th of a second =
brief seizure
may stimulate neurogenesis and new synaptic connections in hippocampus and
amygdala
advantages: FAST improvement with symptoms than w meds, save many from suicide
disadvantages: prolonged use can cause brain damage, high relapse rate
tDCS/transcranial direct current stimulation - potential new treatment for depression
weak current applied to scalp of left side of dorsolateral prefrontal
safer than ECT
, deep brain stimulation - potential new treatments for depression
neurosurgical procedure
place neurostimulator that sends electrical impulses through implanted electrodes to
specific places in brain
optogenetics - insert opsin genes into neurons
causes neuron to manufacture light-sensitive opsin proteins and incorporate them into
the membrane = neuron can be activated by particular wavelength of light
can produce hallucinations, false memories, new memories in mice + birds
can be used for identification of specific neurons/neural networks, treat
depression/chronic pain/seizures/restoration of vision
hedonic approach - focuses on pleasure attainment and pain avoidance
eudaimonic approach - focuses on meaning and self-realization--the degree to which a
person is fully functioning
Maslow's theory of self-actualization - early pioneer of eudaimonic approach in Western
psychology was Abraham Maslow
psychology should study the healthiest, most productive and creative people
created hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top
self actualization = drive to realize one's talents and fulfill one's potentials to express
one's true self and develop a sense of connectedness with the broader universe
largely taken from RM Bucke's Cosmic Consciousness
- human beings are slowly evolving towards a higher state of being
Maslow's hierarchy of needs + supporting research - lower levels focus on physical +
affective components of happiness
higher levels include more cognitive components
lower needs must be met before people are prompted to try to meet higher needs
financial satisfaction is predictive of subjective well-being in poorer nations
home-life satisfaction and self-esteem matter in more wealthy nations
