NU 545 Pathophysiology
NU 545 Pathophysiology Unit 3 Detailed
Exam 2025
1.Know all STI: pathophysiology, etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tests,
treatment, and complications. - Correct Answer-Use EB's chart
· How is each transmitted during pregnancy to the fetus?
· Know the different stages of syphilis.
· what organism causes each STI and is it viral, bacterial etc.?
· Do you treat both partners and why?
· What age group has the greatest risk of STIs and why? Young women
· What causes cervical cancer? HPV exposure
2. Understand the different uterine tumor types - Correct Answer-· Leiomyomas (uterine
fibroids): benign smooth muscle tumors in the myometrium; most remain small and
asymptomatic
o Occurs in the fundus of the uterus in multiples or in singles throughout
o Subserous, submucous, or intramural
o Manifestations: abnormal uterine bleeding (increased uterine surface area), pain,
distorted uterine cavity that can put pressure on a nearby structure
o Evaluation: enlarged and irregular uterus; confirm diagnosis with MRI
Treatment: GnRH antagonists, IUD, oral contraceptive, hysterectomy or myomectomy
(removal of fibroid)
3. What is PCOS and what does it cause? Clinical manifestations? Treatment?
Causes? Pathophysiology? - Correct Answer-· At least two of the following: irregular
ovulation, elevated levels of androgen (testosterone), polycystic ovaries on ultrasound
· Patho: hyperandrogenic state is a cardinal feature, glucose intolerance increases the
severity
· Manifestations: obesity, menstrual disturbance, hyperandrogenism, DM, HTN
· Causes: associated with metabolic dysfunction, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and
obesity
· Treatment: goal is to reverse androgen excess and causing cyclic menstruation; first
line is oral contraceptives to establish a regular period, weight loss, progesterone
therapy if pregnancy is not desired
4. What is the difference between primary and secondary amenorrhea and what is
compartment II? - Correct Answer-· Primary amenorrhea: failure of menarche and the
absence of menstruation by age 13
· Secondary amenorrhea: absence of regular menses for 3 months or irregular menses
for 6 months in women who have previously menstruated; exclude pregnancy before
further evaluation
· Compartment II: disorders that involve the ovary and are linked to genetic
abnormalities; gonadal dysgenesis (turner syndrome) or androgen insensitivity
syndrome (AIS)
NU 545 Pathophysiology
,NU 545 Pathophysiology
5. What are the signs of puberty in girls and boys? What delays puberty? - Correct
Answer-· Reproductive maturation involves the hypothalamic pituitary-gonadal (HPG)
axis, the CNS, the endocrine system; adrenarche is the increased production of adrenal
androgens (axillary and pubic hair growth and body odor)
· Girls: 8-9 years of age, with thelarche (breast development); puberty is complete with
the first menstrual period (could be 1-2 years after menarche or first period)
o estradiol causes breast development, maturation of the reproductive organs, and fat
deposits in the hips
o estrogen and increased growth factors leads to rapid skeletal growth in girls and boys
· Boys: 11 years of age, occurs with increased weight and BMI; complete with the first
ejaculation of mature sperm
o Testosterone causes growth of testes, scrotum, and penis
· Delays in puberty: lack of circulating estrogen leads to inadequate bone density; low
gonadotropin levels: need skull imaging to rule out pituitary or other CNS tumor
o Girls: functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (FHH), disruption in the HPG axis;
treat with estrogen
o Boys: deficient FSH/LH, disruption of HPG axis; treat with testosterone
6. What is the pathophysiology behind the signs and symptoms of menopause? -
Correct Answer-· Cessation of ovulation and menses due to ovarian failure, marks the
end of reproduction; premature menopause (before 40 years old); defined by the point
that marks 12 consecutive months of amenorrhea
· "climacteric": gradual changes of ovarian function that start before menopause due to
a loss of ovarian follicles resulting in reduced ovarian production of estradiol, increased
FSH/LH, and decreased inhibin
· Changes:
o Ovarian: utero- number of follicles steadily decrease, starts in the late 30s
o Uterine: primarily endometrium affected, proliferative growth; longer exposure to
estrogen causes greater thickness of endometrium which causes heavy/unpredictable
bleeding
o Breast: become smaller and lose firmness because fat deposits increase
o Genital tract: vagina shortens and loses elasticity, vaginal pH increases which causes
vaginitis, urethral tone declines causing frequency/urgency/UTIs/incontinence (estrogen
deficiency)
o Systematic: vasomotor flushes (hot flashes) due to rise in temp and dilation of blood
vessels and increased noradrenaline levels
o Cardiac: as estrogen levels decrease, BP and LDL levels rise which causes weight
gain
7. What does breast milk contain? - Correct Answer-· Breast milk is the most
appropriate nourishment for newborns.
· Colostrum is rich in immunologic components (IgA, lactoferrin, leukocytes, growth
factor)
o Secretory IgA and antimicrobial factors (lysosomes and lactoferrin) protect the infant
against infection
NU 545 Pathophysiology
, NU 545 Pathophysiology
8. What is the BRCA1 gene? - Correct Answer-· Located on chromosome 17, it is a
tumor suppressor gene; any mutation in the gene may inhibit its suppressor function
leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation; the most important breast cancer genes are
BRCA1 and BRCA2.
· This alteration leads to a higher risk for breast cancer.
Testes - Correct Answer-organs of reproduction; produces gametes (sperm), sex
hormones (androgens and testosterone)
§ Suspended outside of the body because sperm production requires 1-2 C lower than
body temp
§ Seminiferous tubules are 80% of the testicular volume and are the site of sperm
production; Leydig cells occur in clusters and produce testosterone
§ Sperm mature in the epididymis; its function is to conduct sperm from the efferent
tubules to the vas deferens which transports sperm toward the urethra; sperm are
stored in the vas deferens and epididymal tail
Scrotum - Correct Answer-encloses and protects the testes
§ Skin is thin and has rugae (wrinkles) that enable it to enlarge and relax from the body;
it contracts and relaxes depending on the environmental temps
Penis - Correct Answer-delivery of sperm and elimination of urine
§ If the urethra is not completely surrounded by the corpus spongiosum, the meatus
may open on the ventral surface of the shaft (hypospadias) or the dorsal surface
(epispadias)
§ Erectile reflex is when the corpus spongiosum is engorged with 20-50mL of blood
Male internal GU: the ducts - Correct Answer-conduct sperm and glandular secretions
Male GU glands - Correct Answer-: prostate, two seminal vesicles, and two cowper
(bulbourethral) glands - secrete fluids that serves as a vehicle for sperm transport and
create and alkaline and nutritious medium that promotes sperm motility and survival
§ Comprises semen: sperm leave the vas deferens, the seminal vesicles secrete
nutritive glucose rich fluid into the semen (seminal vesicles provide fructose as the
source of energy for ejaculated sperm), the ducts contract to ejaculate sperm
Prostate: - Correct Answer-Growth, development, and function are regulatedby
androgens andthe androgen receptor - without them, the prostate is at risk for
hyperplastic and malignant growth
-Prostate fluid is thin and milky that has an alkaline pH that helps sperm survive in the
acidic female tract
Cowper glands: - Correct Answer-Last glands to add fluid to the ejaculate
· Normally a man ejaculates 2-6mL of semen with 75 million to 400 million sperm
Vasectomy - Correct Answer-Vas deferens are severed and then tied
NU 545 Pathophysiology
NU 545 Pathophysiology Unit 3 Detailed
Exam 2025
1.Know all STI: pathophysiology, etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tests,
treatment, and complications. - Correct Answer-Use EB's chart
· How is each transmitted during pregnancy to the fetus?
· Know the different stages of syphilis.
· what organism causes each STI and is it viral, bacterial etc.?
· Do you treat both partners and why?
· What age group has the greatest risk of STIs and why? Young women
· What causes cervical cancer? HPV exposure
2. Understand the different uterine tumor types - Correct Answer-· Leiomyomas (uterine
fibroids): benign smooth muscle tumors in the myometrium; most remain small and
asymptomatic
o Occurs in the fundus of the uterus in multiples or in singles throughout
o Subserous, submucous, or intramural
o Manifestations: abnormal uterine bleeding (increased uterine surface area), pain,
distorted uterine cavity that can put pressure on a nearby structure
o Evaluation: enlarged and irregular uterus; confirm diagnosis with MRI
Treatment: GnRH antagonists, IUD, oral contraceptive, hysterectomy or myomectomy
(removal of fibroid)
3. What is PCOS and what does it cause? Clinical manifestations? Treatment?
Causes? Pathophysiology? - Correct Answer-· At least two of the following: irregular
ovulation, elevated levels of androgen (testosterone), polycystic ovaries on ultrasound
· Patho: hyperandrogenic state is a cardinal feature, glucose intolerance increases the
severity
· Manifestations: obesity, menstrual disturbance, hyperandrogenism, DM, HTN
· Causes: associated with metabolic dysfunction, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and
obesity
· Treatment: goal is to reverse androgen excess and causing cyclic menstruation; first
line is oral contraceptives to establish a regular period, weight loss, progesterone
therapy if pregnancy is not desired
4. What is the difference between primary and secondary amenorrhea and what is
compartment II? - Correct Answer-· Primary amenorrhea: failure of menarche and the
absence of menstruation by age 13
· Secondary amenorrhea: absence of regular menses for 3 months or irregular menses
for 6 months in women who have previously menstruated; exclude pregnancy before
further evaluation
· Compartment II: disorders that involve the ovary and are linked to genetic
abnormalities; gonadal dysgenesis (turner syndrome) or androgen insensitivity
syndrome (AIS)
NU 545 Pathophysiology
,NU 545 Pathophysiology
5. What are the signs of puberty in girls and boys? What delays puberty? - Correct
Answer-· Reproductive maturation involves the hypothalamic pituitary-gonadal (HPG)
axis, the CNS, the endocrine system; adrenarche is the increased production of adrenal
androgens (axillary and pubic hair growth and body odor)
· Girls: 8-9 years of age, with thelarche (breast development); puberty is complete with
the first menstrual period (could be 1-2 years after menarche or first period)
o estradiol causes breast development, maturation of the reproductive organs, and fat
deposits in the hips
o estrogen and increased growth factors leads to rapid skeletal growth in girls and boys
· Boys: 11 years of age, occurs with increased weight and BMI; complete with the first
ejaculation of mature sperm
o Testosterone causes growth of testes, scrotum, and penis
· Delays in puberty: lack of circulating estrogen leads to inadequate bone density; low
gonadotropin levels: need skull imaging to rule out pituitary or other CNS tumor
o Girls: functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (FHH), disruption in the HPG axis;
treat with estrogen
o Boys: deficient FSH/LH, disruption of HPG axis; treat with testosterone
6. What is the pathophysiology behind the signs and symptoms of menopause? -
Correct Answer-· Cessation of ovulation and menses due to ovarian failure, marks the
end of reproduction; premature menopause (before 40 years old); defined by the point
that marks 12 consecutive months of amenorrhea
· "climacteric": gradual changes of ovarian function that start before menopause due to
a loss of ovarian follicles resulting in reduced ovarian production of estradiol, increased
FSH/LH, and decreased inhibin
· Changes:
o Ovarian: utero- number of follicles steadily decrease, starts in the late 30s
o Uterine: primarily endometrium affected, proliferative growth; longer exposure to
estrogen causes greater thickness of endometrium which causes heavy/unpredictable
bleeding
o Breast: become smaller and lose firmness because fat deposits increase
o Genital tract: vagina shortens and loses elasticity, vaginal pH increases which causes
vaginitis, urethral tone declines causing frequency/urgency/UTIs/incontinence (estrogen
deficiency)
o Systematic: vasomotor flushes (hot flashes) due to rise in temp and dilation of blood
vessels and increased noradrenaline levels
o Cardiac: as estrogen levels decrease, BP and LDL levels rise which causes weight
gain
7. What does breast milk contain? - Correct Answer-· Breast milk is the most
appropriate nourishment for newborns.
· Colostrum is rich in immunologic components (IgA, lactoferrin, leukocytes, growth
factor)
o Secretory IgA and antimicrobial factors (lysosomes and lactoferrin) protect the infant
against infection
NU 545 Pathophysiology
, NU 545 Pathophysiology
8. What is the BRCA1 gene? - Correct Answer-· Located on chromosome 17, it is a
tumor suppressor gene; any mutation in the gene may inhibit its suppressor function
leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation; the most important breast cancer genes are
BRCA1 and BRCA2.
· This alteration leads to a higher risk for breast cancer.
Testes - Correct Answer-organs of reproduction; produces gametes (sperm), sex
hormones (androgens and testosterone)
§ Suspended outside of the body because sperm production requires 1-2 C lower than
body temp
§ Seminiferous tubules are 80% of the testicular volume and are the site of sperm
production; Leydig cells occur in clusters and produce testosterone
§ Sperm mature in the epididymis; its function is to conduct sperm from the efferent
tubules to the vas deferens which transports sperm toward the urethra; sperm are
stored in the vas deferens and epididymal tail
Scrotum - Correct Answer-encloses and protects the testes
§ Skin is thin and has rugae (wrinkles) that enable it to enlarge and relax from the body;
it contracts and relaxes depending on the environmental temps
Penis - Correct Answer-delivery of sperm and elimination of urine
§ If the urethra is not completely surrounded by the corpus spongiosum, the meatus
may open on the ventral surface of the shaft (hypospadias) or the dorsal surface
(epispadias)
§ Erectile reflex is when the corpus spongiosum is engorged with 20-50mL of blood
Male internal GU: the ducts - Correct Answer-conduct sperm and glandular secretions
Male GU glands - Correct Answer-: prostate, two seminal vesicles, and two cowper
(bulbourethral) glands - secrete fluids that serves as a vehicle for sperm transport and
create and alkaline and nutritious medium that promotes sperm motility and survival
§ Comprises semen: sperm leave the vas deferens, the seminal vesicles secrete
nutritive glucose rich fluid into the semen (seminal vesicles provide fructose as the
source of energy for ejaculated sperm), the ducts contract to ejaculate sperm
Prostate: - Correct Answer-Growth, development, and function are regulatedby
androgens andthe androgen receptor - without them, the prostate is at risk for
hyperplastic and malignant growth
-Prostate fluid is thin and milky that has an alkaline pH that helps sperm survive in the
acidic female tract
Cowper glands: - Correct Answer-Last glands to add fluid to the ejaculate
· Normally a man ejaculates 2-6mL of semen with 75 million to 400 million sperm
Vasectomy - Correct Answer-Vas deferens are severed and then tied
NU 545 Pathophysiology
