Bryman chapter 2 – Social research strategies: quantitative research and qualitative research
Theory and research
- Theory important because provides framework as well as justification for the research
- Theory = explanation of observed regularities
What type of theory?
- Middle range theories -> attempts to understand/explain a limited aspect of social life
- Grand theories -> more abstract level
- Naïve empiricism = research that has no obvious connections with theory (literature acts as
a proxy for theory)
Empiricism
1. General approach to study of reality; knowledge to be obtained through experience/senses
2. Accumulation of ‘’facts’’ is a legitimate goal in itself (naïve empiricism)
Deductive and inductive theory
- Inductive: Declare answer first from observation, then proceed to prove; eg. mathematical
induction. (mostly qualitative)
- Deductive: Proceed to prove then find answer; i.e.. Sherlock Holmes, Clue. Answer is
confirmed at the end (mostly quantitative)
o Last step; revision of theory, involves induction as researchers infer implications of
their findings for the theory that prompted the whole exercise
Revision of
Theory
Abductive reasoning
- Researcher grounds a theoretical understanding of the context and people he/she is
studying in the language, meanings and perspectives that form their world view
- Broadly inductive but different in the way that it is about participants worldview
Epistemological Considerations (what is considered as acceptable knowledge in a discipline)
- A natural science epistemology: positivism (laws of natural sciences apply)
Explanation 1. Only phenomena/knowledge confirmed by senses is valid (phenomenalism)
2. Purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested (deductivism)
of human
3. Knowledge is gathered through gathering of facts (inductivism)
behavior
4. Science must be conducted value free/objective
, 5. Clear distinction between scientific (domain of science) and normative
statements
- Realism (laws of natural sciences apply as well)
o Empirical realism – through use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood
o Critical realism - science should be understood as an ongoing process in which
scientists improve the concepts they use to understand the mechanisms that they
study
Two differences with positivism
Realists argue that scientist’s conceptualization is simply a way of
knowing that reality, it does not directly reflect that reality like
positivists think
Critical realist include theoretical terms that are not directly
observational, but the effects of those are observable
Critical realism is critical because it can change the status quo
Uses retroductive reasoning -> making inference about the causal
mechanism that lies behind and is responsible for things observed in the
social world
- Interpretivism -> social world is different from the natural world
o ‘’verstehen’’ -> interpretative understanding of social action
Understanding o hermeneutic-phenomenological -> how individuals make sense of world around
human behavior them
1. Social reality has meaning for humans, thus human action is meaningful
2. Job of social scientists to interpret their actions
o symbolic interactionism -> individual is constantly interpreting symbolic meaning
o double interpretation in all this: researcher provides an interpretation of other
people’s interpretations
Ontological considerations (what is the nature of social entities?)
- Objectivism (structure)
o Social phenomena and their meanings have an existence independent of social
actors
o External facts that are beyond our reach or influence (organization and culture)
- Constructionism/constructivism (agency)
o social interaction is in a constant state of revision and construction, that is
accomplished by social actors life is social construct (masculinity)
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research
- research strategy = general orientation to the conduct of social research
Quantitative (employ Qualitative (do not employ
measurement) measurement)
Principle orientation to the Deductive; testing of theory Inductive; generation of theory
role of theory in relation to
research
Epistemological orientation Natural science model, in Interpretivism
particular positivism
Ontological orientation Objectivism Constructionism
Mixed methods = combines methods associated with both quantitative and qualitative research
Influences on the conduct of social research
, - values
- practical considerations (survey might not work for drug use)
- (as well as theory, ontology and epistemology)
Bryman chapter 3: Research design
Introduction
- Research design = framework for the collection and analysis of data
- Research method = technique for collecting data
o Associated with different kinds of research design
- Problem -> theory -> design -> data collection -> analysis -> conclusion
Quality criteria in social research (all these mostly quantitative)
- Reliability -> are the results consistent? Are the results repeatable? Is a measure stable?
- Replication/replicability -> replicating findings of others, researchers must describe methods
- Validity -> integrity of the conclusions generated from research
o Measurement validity (does the measure reflect the concept it is supposed to be
measuring, related to reliability)
o Internal validity (is the causality correct) -> used to find effect of independent on
dependent variable
Independent variable, also called predictor or factor (has a causal influence
on the dependent variable)
Dependent variable, also called result variable
Threats to internal validity (can partly be solved by having a control group):
history, testing, instrumentation, mortality, maturation, selection, ambiguity
about the direction of causal influence
o External validity (can the results of the study be generalized beyond the research)
Quantitative researchers therefore often use representative samples
Threats to external validity: interaction of selection and treatment,
interaction of setting and treatment, interaction of history and treatment
(history effect), interaction effects of pre-testing, issue of reactivity (people
are aware they are in an experiment)
o Ecological validity (are the results related to people’s every day, natural social
settings?) -> questionnaire not very natural and thus limited ecological validity.
Enormous intrusion (violating privacy)
o Inferential validity (do they draw conclusions that actually cannot be drawn?)
More qualitative: Credibility (parallels internal validity), transferability (parallels external validity),
dependability (parallels reliability), confirmability (parallels objectivity)
Variable = attribute on which cases vary (households, nations etc)
Constant = attribute on which cases do not vary
Naturalism -> 3 meanings, can be contradictory (not that important!!!)
- Viewing all objects of study - whether natural or social – as belonging to the same realm and
a consequent commitment to the principles of natural scientific method (kinda positivism)
- Being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated
- Style of research that seeks to minimize the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection
Research designs
Experimental design -> strong internal validity (entails a comparison)
Theory and research
- Theory important because provides framework as well as justification for the research
- Theory = explanation of observed regularities
What type of theory?
- Middle range theories -> attempts to understand/explain a limited aspect of social life
- Grand theories -> more abstract level
- Naïve empiricism = research that has no obvious connections with theory (literature acts as
a proxy for theory)
Empiricism
1. General approach to study of reality; knowledge to be obtained through experience/senses
2. Accumulation of ‘’facts’’ is a legitimate goal in itself (naïve empiricism)
Deductive and inductive theory
- Inductive: Declare answer first from observation, then proceed to prove; eg. mathematical
induction. (mostly qualitative)
- Deductive: Proceed to prove then find answer; i.e.. Sherlock Holmes, Clue. Answer is
confirmed at the end (mostly quantitative)
o Last step; revision of theory, involves induction as researchers infer implications of
their findings for the theory that prompted the whole exercise
Revision of
Theory
Abductive reasoning
- Researcher grounds a theoretical understanding of the context and people he/she is
studying in the language, meanings and perspectives that form their world view
- Broadly inductive but different in the way that it is about participants worldview
Epistemological Considerations (what is considered as acceptable knowledge in a discipline)
- A natural science epistemology: positivism (laws of natural sciences apply)
Explanation 1. Only phenomena/knowledge confirmed by senses is valid (phenomenalism)
2. Purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested (deductivism)
of human
3. Knowledge is gathered through gathering of facts (inductivism)
behavior
4. Science must be conducted value free/objective
, 5. Clear distinction between scientific (domain of science) and normative
statements
- Realism (laws of natural sciences apply as well)
o Empirical realism – through use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood
o Critical realism - science should be understood as an ongoing process in which
scientists improve the concepts they use to understand the mechanisms that they
study
Two differences with positivism
Realists argue that scientist’s conceptualization is simply a way of
knowing that reality, it does not directly reflect that reality like
positivists think
Critical realist include theoretical terms that are not directly
observational, but the effects of those are observable
Critical realism is critical because it can change the status quo
Uses retroductive reasoning -> making inference about the causal
mechanism that lies behind and is responsible for things observed in the
social world
- Interpretivism -> social world is different from the natural world
o ‘’verstehen’’ -> interpretative understanding of social action
Understanding o hermeneutic-phenomenological -> how individuals make sense of world around
human behavior them
1. Social reality has meaning for humans, thus human action is meaningful
2. Job of social scientists to interpret their actions
o symbolic interactionism -> individual is constantly interpreting symbolic meaning
o double interpretation in all this: researcher provides an interpretation of other
people’s interpretations
Ontological considerations (what is the nature of social entities?)
- Objectivism (structure)
o Social phenomena and their meanings have an existence independent of social
actors
o External facts that are beyond our reach or influence (organization and culture)
- Constructionism/constructivism (agency)
o social interaction is in a constant state of revision and construction, that is
accomplished by social actors life is social construct (masculinity)
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research
- research strategy = general orientation to the conduct of social research
Quantitative (employ Qualitative (do not employ
measurement) measurement)
Principle orientation to the Deductive; testing of theory Inductive; generation of theory
role of theory in relation to
research
Epistemological orientation Natural science model, in Interpretivism
particular positivism
Ontological orientation Objectivism Constructionism
Mixed methods = combines methods associated with both quantitative and qualitative research
Influences on the conduct of social research
, - values
- practical considerations (survey might not work for drug use)
- (as well as theory, ontology and epistemology)
Bryman chapter 3: Research design
Introduction
- Research design = framework for the collection and analysis of data
- Research method = technique for collecting data
o Associated with different kinds of research design
- Problem -> theory -> design -> data collection -> analysis -> conclusion
Quality criteria in social research (all these mostly quantitative)
- Reliability -> are the results consistent? Are the results repeatable? Is a measure stable?
- Replication/replicability -> replicating findings of others, researchers must describe methods
- Validity -> integrity of the conclusions generated from research
o Measurement validity (does the measure reflect the concept it is supposed to be
measuring, related to reliability)
o Internal validity (is the causality correct) -> used to find effect of independent on
dependent variable
Independent variable, also called predictor or factor (has a causal influence
on the dependent variable)
Dependent variable, also called result variable
Threats to internal validity (can partly be solved by having a control group):
history, testing, instrumentation, mortality, maturation, selection, ambiguity
about the direction of causal influence
o External validity (can the results of the study be generalized beyond the research)
Quantitative researchers therefore often use representative samples
Threats to external validity: interaction of selection and treatment,
interaction of setting and treatment, interaction of history and treatment
(history effect), interaction effects of pre-testing, issue of reactivity (people
are aware they are in an experiment)
o Ecological validity (are the results related to people’s every day, natural social
settings?) -> questionnaire not very natural and thus limited ecological validity.
Enormous intrusion (violating privacy)
o Inferential validity (do they draw conclusions that actually cannot be drawn?)
More qualitative: Credibility (parallels internal validity), transferability (parallels external validity),
dependability (parallels reliability), confirmability (parallels objectivity)
Variable = attribute on which cases vary (households, nations etc)
Constant = attribute on which cases do not vary
Naturalism -> 3 meanings, can be contradictory (not that important!!!)
- Viewing all objects of study - whether natural or social – as belonging to the same realm and
a consequent commitment to the principles of natural scientific method (kinda positivism)
- Being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated
- Style of research that seeks to minimize the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection
Research designs
Experimental design -> strong internal validity (entails a comparison)
