Chapter 2
Realist Theories:
Realism (or political realism) is a school of thought that explains international relations in
terms of power.
Machiavelli:
Hobbes:
Modern realist theory developed in reaction to a liberal tradition that realists called idealism (of
course, idealists themselves do not consider their approach unrealistic). Idealism emphasizes
international law, morality, and international organizations, rather than power alone, as key
influences on international events. Idealists think that human nature is basically good. They
see the international system as one based on a community of states that have the potential
to work together to overcome mutual problems (see Chapter 3). For idealists, the principles of
IR must ow from morality.
Realists have blamed idealists for looking too much at how the world ought to be instead of how
it really is.
Foundation of realism is dominance principle.
Realists tend to treat political power as separate from, and predominant over, morality, ideology,
and other social and economic aspects of life.
Thus, realists assume that IR can be best (although not exclusively) explained by the choices of
states operating as autonomous actors rationally pursuing their own interests in an
international system of sovereign states without a central authority.
Defining Power
Power is often defined as the ability to get another actor to do what it would not otherwise
have done (or not to do what it would have done). A variation on this idea is that actors are
powerful to the extent that they affect others more than others affect them. These definitions treat
power as influence. Power is not influence itself, however, but the ability or potential to
influence others. Power also depends on nonmaterial elements. Capabilities give a state the
, potential to influence others only to the extent that political leaders can mobilize and deploy
these capabilities effectively and strategically. This depends on national will, diplomatic skill,
popular support for the government (its legitimacy), and so forth. Some scholars emphasize the
power of ideas—the ability to maximize the influence of capabilities through a psychological
process. This process includes the domestic mobilization of capabilities—often through religion,
ideology, or (especially) nationalism. If a state’s own values become widely shared among other
states, it will easily influence others. This has been called soft power.
Estimating Power
With a healthy enough economy, a state can buy a large army, popular support (by providing
consumer goods), and even allies.
Elements of Power
State power is a mix of many ingredients. Elements that an actor can draw on over the long term
include total GDP, population, territory, geography, and natural resources. These attributes
change only slowly. Less tangible long-term power resources include political culture,
patriotism, education of the population, and strength of the scientific and technological base. The
credibility of its commitments (reputation for keeping its word) is also a long-term power base
for a state.
Other capabilities allow actors to exercise influence in the short term. Military forces are such a
capability—perhaps the most important kind. Another capability is the military-industrial
capacity to quickly produce weapons. The quality of a state’s bureaucracy is another type of
capability, allowing the state to gather information, regulate international trade, or participate in
international conferences.
Realists tend to see military force as the most important element of national power in the short
term, and other elements such as economic strength, diplomatic skill, or moral legitimacy as
being important to the extent that they are fungible into military power.
The use of geography as an element of power is called geopolitics. It is often tied to the
logistical requirements of military forces.
Anarchy and Sovereignty
Realists believe that the international system exists in a state of anarchy—a term that implies
not complete chaos or absence of structure and rules, but rather the lack of a central
government that can enforce rules. In domestic society within states, governments can enforce
contracts, deter citizens from breaking rules, and use their monopoly on legally sanctioned
violence to enforce a system of law. Both democracies and dictatorships provide central
government enforcement of a system of rules. Realists contend that no such central authority
exists to enforce rules and ensure compliance with norms of conduct. This makes collective
goods problems especially acute in IR. The power of one state is countered only by the power of
other states. States must therefore rely on self-help, which they supplement with allies and the
(sometimes) constraining power of international norms. But most realists think that IR cannot
escape from a state of anarchy and will continue to be dangerous as a result.
2
Realist Theories:
Realism (or political realism) is a school of thought that explains international relations in
terms of power.
Machiavelli:
Hobbes:
Modern realist theory developed in reaction to a liberal tradition that realists called idealism (of
course, idealists themselves do not consider their approach unrealistic). Idealism emphasizes
international law, morality, and international organizations, rather than power alone, as key
influences on international events. Idealists think that human nature is basically good. They
see the international system as one based on a community of states that have the potential
to work together to overcome mutual problems (see Chapter 3). For idealists, the principles of
IR must ow from morality.
Realists have blamed idealists for looking too much at how the world ought to be instead of how
it really is.
Foundation of realism is dominance principle.
Realists tend to treat political power as separate from, and predominant over, morality, ideology,
and other social and economic aspects of life.
Thus, realists assume that IR can be best (although not exclusively) explained by the choices of
states operating as autonomous actors rationally pursuing their own interests in an
international system of sovereign states without a central authority.
Defining Power
Power is often defined as the ability to get another actor to do what it would not otherwise
have done (or not to do what it would have done). A variation on this idea is that actors are
powerful to the extent that they affect others more than others affect them. These definitions treat
power as influence. Power is not influence itself, however, but the ability or potential to
influence others. Power also depends on nonmaterial elements. Capabilities give a state the
, potential to influence others only to the extent that political leaders can mobilize and deploy
these capabilities effectively and strategically. This depends on national will, diplomatic skill,
popular support for the government (its legitimacy), and so forth. Some scholars emphasize the
power of ideas—the ability to maximize the influence of capabilities through a psychological
process. This process includes the domestic mobilization of capabilities—often through religion,
ideology, or (especially) nationalism. If a state’s own values become widely shared among other
states, it will easily influence others. This has been called soft power.
Estimating Power
With a healthy enough economy, a state can buy a large army, popular support (by providing
consumer goods), and even allies.
Elements of Power
State power is a mix of many ingredients. Elements that an actor can draw on over the long term
include total GDP, population, territory, geography, and natural resources. These attributes
change only slowly. Less tangible long-term power resources include political culture,
patriotism, education of the population, and strength of the scientific and technological base. The
credibility of its commitments (reputation for keeping its word) is also a long-term power base
for a state.
Other capabilities allow actors to exercise influence in the short term. Military forces are such a
capability—perhaps the most important kind. Another capability is the military-industrial
capacity to quickly produce weapons. The quality of a state’s bureaucracy is another type of
capability, allowing the state to gather information, regulate international trade, or participate in
international conferences.
Realists tend to see military force as the most important element of national power in the short
term, and other elements such as economic strength, diplomatic skill, or moral legitimacy as
being important to the extent that they are fungible into military power.
The use of geography as an element of power is called geopolitics. It is often tied to the
logistical requirements of military forces.
Anarchy and Sovereignty
Realists believe that the international system exists in a state of anarchy—a term that implies
not complete chaos or absence of structure and rules, but rather the lack of a central
government that can enforce rules. In domestic society within states, governments can enforce
contracts, deter citizens from breaking rules, and use their monopoly on legally sanctioned
violence to enforce a system of law. Both democracies and dictatorships provide central
government enforcement of a system of rules. Realists contend that no such central authority
exists to enforce rules and ensure compliance with norms of conduct. This makes collective
goods problems especially acute in IR. The power of one state is countered only by the power of
other states. States must therefore rely on self-help, which they supplement with allies and the
(sometimes) constraining power of international norms. But most realists think that IR cannot
escape from a state of anarchy and will continue to be dangerous as a result.
2
