PSYC4181 Study Guide With Complete Questions & Answers.

What is an organization? (L1) - correct answer - "An internally differentiated and purposeful social group that has a psychological impact on its members." (Haslam, 2004) - Has roles, norms, and culture - Is co-ordinated, goal-directed and has social identity Dominant approaches to organisations (L1) - correct answer Economic (Taylor, 1911) Individual difference (Münsterberg, 1913) Human relations (Mayo, 1939) Describe the economic approach (L1) - correct answer - Frederick Taylor - Rejected 'rules of thumb' in favour of 'one best way' - Emphasised value of (a) efficiency, (b) standardization and uniformity, (c) discipline and hierarchy (command and control) - Classic case study at Bethlehem Steel Plant. Implementation of Taylorist principles increased production from 13 tpm/pd to 48 - Most common/core approach Problems with the economic approach? (L1) - correct answer - Political: Productivity up 363%, wages up 61%; 460/600 redundant - Bethlehem owners unhappy (because they owned most of the town, and with people becoming redundant they were leaving town) - Resistance in middle-class professions (blue-collar fine but white collar not ok with such strict leadership) - Too formulaic (like bad comedy) — whither creativity? (eg. If the military has 'one best way' the opposing army will know your tactics. ALSO if your used to routne the when something nexpected comesalong you wont know how to deal with it) - Apsychological - Nevertheless, impact "impossible to over-estimate" Describe the individual difference approach (L1) - correct answer - Hugo Munsterberg (1913) - Attempted to put some psychology into 'the one best way' by developing science to identify the 'one best person'. Suggested this rested on (a) precise analysis of task (b) development of aptitude tests - put psychology into Taylorism - His goal was round the personnel side of oraniations - getting the right people to do the jobs - Looked at what the job entailed. Assessed whether people had the skills required to undertake the jobs What did the classic study at Bell Telephone Company do? (L1) - correct answer created tests that were created to see if people had the correct skills necessary for the jobs - Key operator skills: (a) memory, (b) attention to detail, (c) precision, (d) speed, (e) intelligence Tested by (a) tests of digit recall, (b) cross out letters in a newspaper column, (c) sorting cards, (d) draw patterns quickly (e) recalling lists of logically paired words. Also development of 'tasks in miniature' (e.g., for tram drivers) Identified known best operatives Problems with the individual difference approach (L1) - correct answer - Enormously influential - Not easy to identify task requirements for high-level jobs (e.g., a lecturer) - Utility of aptitude tests depends on proximity to task — but often they are very remote - Even when people have aptitude, they don't always display it in situ. - Here group dynamics and culture can over-ride individual disposition - Job requirements may have chaged eg. Gave someone a job as a teacher because of their good handwriting but now with computers and powerpoints that skill is unnecessary - PROBLEM looking at sills ell you a lit about ability, but not about motivation. Ther are oother things that goito job performance - motivation, boredom, stress. Just because sommene can do something doesn't mean they will What is the The human relations approach? (L1) - correct answer - Poneered by Elton Mayo - Based on study at the Hawthorne Works of Western Electrical Company in Chicago (Hawthorne effect) - Mayo set out to implement Taylorist regime: changing pay, rest periods, lighting etc. Created 2 groups and manipulated conditions for one who were separated in testing room. - Manipulations had unexpected effects for both groups - Why di the performance improve? Beaseuthey knew thye were beingwatched - that's not part pf Taylorism. Also, they felt like management cared abot them and what theyre doing. Also, changing the conditions from the mundane increased productvyry eecause it increase entertainment because they din know what to expect at work each day Define the social identity approach (L1) - correct answer - Human relations approach limited by lack of theoretical specification. - Nevertheless, provides springboard for the social identity approach - explains why people are transformed by their group membership - This takes the psychological reality of the group 'we-ness' (social identity) as its starting point - Builds on the strengths of other approaches - Argues for the need to study individual psychology - But also wants to understand how this is structured by group memberships in context - Individuals can define themselves as in terms of social identity ('we scientists', 'we telephone assembly team') as well as personal identity ('I') Individuals are motivated to have positive and distinct self-concept - When self is defined in terms of social identity, we're motivated to see our ingroup as positive and distinct - Theory focuses on what makes social identity salient, and what the distinct consequences of this are. - We are motivated to self-enhance Determinants of social identity salience (L1) - correct answer Some specified by social identity theory -perceived permeability of group boundaries -ability to define the ingroup as a positive and distinct entity Some specified by self-categorization theory -accessibility (prior meaning) -comparative and normative fit What is comparative fit (L1) - correct answer For predicting whether a group will categorize an individual as an ingroup or outgroup member, the meta-contrast principle may be defined as the ratio of the average similarity of the individual to outgroup members over the average similarity of the individual to ingroup members. What is normative fit (L1) - correct answer Normative fit is the extent that the perceived behaviour or attributes of an individual or collection of individuals conforms to the perceiver's knowledge-based expectations Consequences of social identity salience (L1) - correct answer To the extent that a shared social identity is salient (a) we see ourselves as categorically interchangeable with other ingroup members (as defined by context) (b) we influence, and are influenced by, ingroup members (to the extent that we or they are representative of that group) (c) we enhance self-esteem (collectively self-actualize) by working collaboratively towards shared ingroup goals. Old and current psychologies of leadership (L2) - correct answer Trait-based Contingency Behavioural Transactional Transformational Trait and personality approaches to leadership (L2) - correct answer - Effective leaders are simply "great men" who have what it takes to lead (Plato, 380bc) - In contemporary psychological thinking, related to qualities such as: decisiveness insight imagination intelligence charisma - dominant approach - Intelligence and charisma is the main focus of the literature - Leaders are perceived to be itellinent by their followers. Intellinence is not perticullarly predictive of leadership quality. Perceived intelligence it roe valuel than actual intelligence. Correlation betwwen perceived and actual intelligence is very low - We project intelligence into others. Potentially true for all those things, not just intelligence Contingency approaches to leadership (L2) - correct answer - Effective leadership is a product of a 'perfect match' between personality and context. Classic example is Least-Preferred Co-worker Theory -if yure a task focused perso youl do well if everything is going very well oor very badly - If youre a relationship focused person yull do better in the middele - Theres no personality tpe that makes esoemone good in every circumstance Behavioural approaches to leadership (L2) - correct answer To address problems of psychological theory, researchers focused on what leaders actually do. Ohio State studies (Fleishman & Peters, 1962) - Consideration: Effective leaders look after those they lead - Initiation of structure: Effective leaders define roles and goals that guide followers towards change. Maps onto widespread distinction between relationship-oriented (high-LPC) and task-oriented (low-LPC) leadership Effetive leaders: show consideration (care about the group they're leading) and initiation of structure. But JUST because someone may show those two doesn't ensure they'd be a good leader Leaders need to be focused on the relationship AND the task. Transactional approaches to leadership (L2) - correct answer - Effective leadership is a process of social exchange (Hollander, 1978) - Sees leadership as a two-way process involving followership (you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours) - Leader builds up idiosyncrasy credits, that allow him or her to take followers in new directions. - Lmx - leader member exchange. I help you, you do something for me to endose my eadership - Problematic: some 'exchanges' aren't good, wont motivate you (eg. You come to my lecture an give me a good course evaluation and ill make the assignments easy). - It looks bad.Merhentile (like a shop, exchanging something for something else) leadership isn't meant to be like that. Also, you've lost the carasmetic part Transformational approaches to leadership (L2) - correct answer - Seek to move beyond mechanical mercantile models. - Leaders transform the interests of followers, taking them to a higher moral plane — motivating them to engage with the 'greater good'. This is seen as the product of a leader's charismatic personality - A good leader is transformational exeriance; peple move forward and upward and can make you a better person - They should be able to unleash potential Limitations of old psychologies of leadership - correct answer - Aperspectival (leadership is rarely recognised consensually) (suggests that you can establish whether leadership is good or bad based on a set or criteria. BUT what matters is perceived not actual qualities) - Inflexible (leader's character is seen as fixed, inflexible and unresponsive) - Individualistic (emphasis is on 'I-ness' rather than 'we-ness') - Non-predictive: "Unfortunately, in real time, it is unclear who will be known as visionaries and who will be known as failures" Qualitatively lacking (analysis identifies, but fails to explain, the 'something more' of leadership) - Leadership varies as a function of those who are apprehending (perceiving) it The so