forensics essays
Describe and evaluate cognitive explanations for offending. [16 marks]
A01=6 A03=10 - correct answer-Cognitive explanation was proposed by Kohlberg who
applied a concept of level or moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. Researcher has
suggested offenders typically show significantly lower levels of moral reasoning. He found
using a moral dilemma testing, that those of violent youth groups had significantly lower
moral development than non-violent youth groups. It was also found that offenders classified
at a pre-conventional level, compared to a conventional level. This is characterised by the
need to avoid punishment, less maturity, and childlike reasoning. Individuals at this level are
more likely to commit crime, if they can get away with it, as there may be a reward associate
with the crime, i.e., money. Certain studies have supported this assumption where they've
suggests that offenders are more egocentric, self-centred, and socially incapable. Thus,
there unable to be sympathetic, honest, and non-violent. Furthermore, offenders have been
found to have cognitive distortions. An example of this is hostile attribution bias, where the
offender misinterprets situations where they believe someone to be aggressive, when I
reality they're not. This then leads to react in a violent response. Another cognitive distortion
is minimisation, where the offender down-plays the offence, or denies even committing it.
Moral reasoning has been demonstrated to by Palmer and Hollin (1998), where they
compared moral-reasoning within groups of non-offenders and offenders. They found that
the delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group.
This provides support Kohlberg's predictions, because it demonstrates how offenders moral
reasoning is less than non-offenders and increases our confidence, as it's a replication of
Kohlberg's findings, and therefore increasing the reliability. It is suggested tha
Discuss one or more ways of dealing with offending behaviour. Refer to some of the
suggestions in Table 6 in your answer. [16 marks]
A01=6 A02=4 A03=6 - correct answer-Offending behaviour can't be dealt with in various
ways. Behaviour modification is way of dealing with offending behaviour through operant
conditioning, with the intentions to replacing undesired behaviours with more desired ones.
This is often established using a token economy where behaviour is reinforced, good
behaviour is rewarded with token (secondary reinforcer) which then be traded in for a
primary reinforcer, i.e., an extra phone call. Bad behaviour is then discouraged by eliminating
the tokens. Table 6 shows an example of this as suggest by an offender to "give him points
for TV time when he behaves" this is an example of a token economy. This as well helps
offenders learn the "link between behaviour and consequences", as according to operant
condition, the offender will learn to associate good behaviour with rewards, which eventually
encourages the behaviour on a day-to-day basis.
A strength with token economy is that its easy to implement and doesn't requirer specialist
training, thus making it cost-effective. Supporting research consisting of applying three
condition: typical prison methods, behaviour monitoring and encouragement, and a full token
economy was implements onto American male prisoner. It was found that the prisoner's
behaviour was most desirable when the full token economy was implemented, ie. Staying
tidy, being on time. Furthermore, it was also found that prisoners who were in a token
, economy had reduced rates of reoffending within the first two years of release, in
comparison to those not in a token economy. However, a three-year check-up on offenders
found that the reoffending rate was no different. This indicates that impact of the token
economy reduces over-time when no consistent. This disadvantage is supported by evident
suggestions indicating that to be successful in the token econom
Describe differential association theory in the context of offending. Refer to the study above
in your answer. [8 marks]
A01=4 A02=4 - correct answer-Differential association theory, DAT, was initially proposed by
Sutherland, who suggested that offending is a learnt behaviour through individuals social
groups attitudes. Sutherland's theory proposed can be into two factors. The first being
predicting the likelihood of a person committing crime through the internalisation of pro vs
anti criminal attitudes of those around us (role models). It was said if an individual's social
group and families had pro-criminal attitudes, these behaviours may be learnt. The theory
further proposed a mathematically basis of measure, where if the individual is exposed to
more pro-criminal attitudes, over anti-criminal attitudes the individual will go on to commit a
crime. Secondly, the theory proposed that individuals may also learn specific criminal acts
around us, role models. The idea proposed by Sutherland was to then be able to evaluate
the frequency, intensity, and duration of the exposer to pro-criminal attitudes, then we could
possibly mathematically establish the likelihood of a person committing a crime.
It was also found that offending behaviour is passed through out families. This study above
shows found that the sons and grandson of an offender often carry out similar crimes to the
offender. The behaviours are often acted in the same way. This supports the theory as it
shows how the exposer to pro-criminal attitudes can be learnt via social group, and then go
on to learn how to carry out the criminal act. The study also mentioned how the neighbours
and friends weren't concerned with their behaviour, suggesting they have pro-criminal
attitudes, because they aren't against what they did. This indicates that the family's sons and
grandson were surrounded with pro-crime attitudes, likely outweigh the anti-criminal
attitudes. Hence, they learnt the behaviour via their surroundi
Discuss the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. [16 marks]
A01=6 A03=10 - correct answer-Custodial sentencing is aimed to deal with offending
behaviour. It refers to the use of prisons, or other institution forms, to protect the public,
retribution (justice), incapacitation (inhibit of crimes occurring) and to rehabilitate (reforming
criminals). The consequences of these measure can cause psychological effects. Research
have found three main effects due to imprisonment. Stress and depression are typically
extremely high, and was found that suicide rates, self-harm and stress are proportionately
higher in comparison to the general population. Prisoners also adapt to certain norms and
values within the prison, this makes it hard for them to adapt to the general world on realise,
and as a consequent increases reoffending, it was found that approximately 70% of younger
offender reoffend within 2 years of realise, this is known as institutionalisation. Lastly, a third
effect is known as 'prisonisation', similarly, certain behaviours are encouraged within person
which may be concerned unaccepted in the real world, an example would be prisoner
hierarchy.
There is a great deal of research evidence to support the idea that custodial sentencing has
negative psychological effects. Bartol (1995) has proposed many offenders find that
Describe and evaluate cognitive explanations for offending. [16 marks]
A01=6 A03=10 - correct answer-Cognitive explanation was proposed by Kohlberg who
applied a concept of level or moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. Researcher has
suggested offenders typically show significantly lower levels of moral reasoning. He found
using a moral dilemma testing, that those of violent youth groups had significantly lower
moral development than non-violent youth groups. It was also found that offenders classified
at a pre-conventional level, compared to a conventional level. This is characterised by the
need to avoid punishment, less maturity, and childlike reasoning. Individuals at this level are
more likely to commit crime, if they can get away with it, as there may be a reward associate
with the crime, i.e., money. Certain studies have supported this assumption where they've
suggests that offenders are more egocentric, self-centred, and socially incapable. Thus,
there unable to be sympathetic, honest, and non-violent. Furthermore, offenders have been
found to have cognitive distortions. An example of this is hostile attribution bias, where the
offender misinterprets situations where they believe someone to be aggressive, when I
reality they're not. This then leads to react in a violent response. Another cognitive distortion
is minimisation, where the offender down-plays the offence, or denies even committing it.
Moral reasoning has been demonstrated to by Palmer and Hollin (1998), where they
compared moral-reasoning within groups of non-offenders and offenders. They found that
the delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group.
This provides support Kohlberg's predictions, because it demonstrates how offenders moral
reasoning is less than non-offenders and increases our confidence, as it's a replication of
Kohlberg's findings, and therefore increasing the reliability. It is suggested tha
Discuss one or more ways of dealing with offending behaviour. Refer to some of the
suggestions in Table 6 in your answer. [16 marks]
A01=6 A02=4 A03=6 - correct answer-Offending behaviour can't be dealt with in various
ways. Behaviour modification is way of dealing with offending behaviour through operant
conditioning, with the intentions to replacing undesired behaviours with more desired ones.
This is often established using a token economy where behaviour is reinforced, good
behaviour is rewarded with token (secondary reinforcer) which then be traded in for a
primary reinforcer, i.e., an extra phone call. Bad behaviour is then discouraged by eliminating
the tokens. Table 6 shows an example of this as suggest by an offender to "give him points
for TV time when he behaves" this is an example of a token economy. This as well helps
offenders learn the "link between behaviour and consequences", as according to operant
condition, the offender will learn to associate good behaviour with rewards, which eventually
encourages the behaviour on a day-to-day basis.
A strength with token economy is that its easy to implement and doesn't requirer specialist
training, thus making it cost-effective. Supporting research consisting of applying three
condition: typical prison methods, behaviour monitoring and encouragement, and a full token
economy was implements onto American male prisoner. It was found that the prisoner's
behaviour was most desirable when the full token economy was implemented, ie. Staying
tidy, being on time. Furthermore, it was also found that prisoners who were in a token
, economy had reduced rates of reoffending within the first two years of release, in
comparison to those not in a token economy. However, a three-year check-up on offenders
found that the reoffending rate was no different. This indicates that impact of the token
economy reduces over-time when no consistent. This disadvantage is supported by evident
suggestions indicating that to be successful in the token econom
Describe differential association theory in the context of offending. Refer to the study above
in your answer. [8 marks]
A01=4 A02=4 - correct answer-Differential association theory, DAT, was initially proposed by
Sutherland, who suggested that offending is a learnt behaviour through individuals social
groups attitudes. Sutherland's theory proposed can be into two factors. The first being
predicting the likelihood of a person committing crime through the internalisation of pro vs
anti criminal attitudes of those around us (role models). It was said if an individual's social
group and families had pro-criminal attitudes, these behaviours may be learnt. The theory
further proposed a mathematically basis of measure, where if the individual is exposed to
more pro-criminal attitudes, over anti-criminal attitudes the individual will go on to commit a
crime. Secondly, the theory proposed that individuals may also learn specific criminal acts
around us, role models. The idea proposed by Sutherland was to then be able to evaluate
the frequency, intensity, and duration of the exposer to pro-criminal attitudes, then we could
possibly mathematically establish the likelihood of a person committing a crime.
It was also found that offending behaviour is passed through out families. This study above
shows found that the sons and grandson of an offender often carry out similar crimes to the
offender. The behaviours are often acted in the same way. This supports the theory as it
shows how the exposer to pro-criminal attitudes can be learnt via social group, and then go
on to learn how to carry out the criminal act. The study also mentioned how the neighbours
and friends weren't concerned with their behaviour, suggesting they have pro-criminal
attitudes, because they aren't against what they did. This indicates that the family's sons and
grandson were surrounded with pro-crime attitudes, likely outweigh the anti-criminal
attitudes. Hence, they learnt the behaviour via their surroundi
Discuss the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. [16 marks]
A01=6 A03=10 - correct answer-Custodial sentencing is aimed to deal with offending
behaviour. It refers to the use of prisons, or other institution forms, to protect the public,
retribution (justice), incapacitation (inhibit of crimes occurring) and to rehabilitate (reforming
criminals). The consequences of these measure can cause psychological effects. Research
have found three main effects due to imprisonment. Stress and depression are typically
extremely high, and was found that suicide rates, self-harm and stress are proportionately
higher in comparison to the general population. Prisoners also adapt to certain norms and
values within the prison, this makes it hard for them to adapt to the general world on realise,
and as a consequent increases reoffending, it was found that approximately 70% of younger
offender reoffend within 2 years of realise, this is known as institutionalisation. Lastly, a third
effect is known as 'prisonisation', similarly, certain behaviours are encouraged within person
which may be concerned unaccepted in the real world, an example would be prisoner
hierarchy.
There is a great deal of research evidence to support the idea that custodial sentencing has
negative psychological effects. Bartol (1995) has proposed many offenders find that
