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Summary Hopt exam 2
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This summary can be used for the second exam or the rest. (there is only the lectures and not the readings) Good luck !
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HisPo summary 2Lecture 8:
Who was Spinoza?
- Dutch philosopher and lens-grinder
- Kicked out of Jewish community
- Biblical criticism
- Radical metaphysics: God is nature
- Author of Theological-Political Treatise (1677)
What is in the Theological-Political Treatise?
- Defence of freedom of thought and speech
- Not grounded in value of free speech
- Rather: practically impossible and hence counter-productive to try to restrict free speech
- Liberal conclusion built on Hobbesian principles
- Divergence caused by disagreement about human nature
Spinoza and Hobbes
1. Their social contract theories agree on many points
2. Humans have a natural right to everything
3. The state of nature is full of hostility
4. A legally unbounded sovereign must be empowered to secure trust and settle conflict
5. In their actions, citizens must obey the civil law in all things
6. Government power extends over religious affairs as well
7. Peace and self-preservation are main reasons for entering a state
Hobbes’s right to everything
- In a condition of war, the right of self-defence permits individuals to do everything
Spinoza’s right to everything
- God is nature
- Everything in nature
- Might equals right
No free speech in Hobbes:
- Rulers have a duty to secure peace and stability
This requires rooting “evil doctrines” which incite people to treason “out of the citizens’
minds and gently instil others”
Spinoza: controlling freedom of thought and speech is impossible
- Humans will always have the power, and hence the right, to think freely
Argument for free speech
“It is a fact that human nature is like this”
- Citizens cannot renounce the ability to make up their own mind
- And they will inevitably communicate their thoughts to others
- Repressing free speech is counter-productive since it undermines trust and inspires spirited
resistance
- Rulers lack the power, and hence the right, to control civil opinion
, Toleration is the best policy given human nature
Compare rights-based arguments
Locke’s arguments for religious toleration:
- Political rulers have not been authorized by the people to take care of our spiritual welfare
- People cannot be compelled to believe things by force; religious compulsion is in vain
Hobbes:
- Political control over religion for reasons of social stability
Spinoza:
- Any regulation of (religious) beliefs is counter-productive!
Critics:
Spinoza formulates an internal critique of Hobbes
- Given Hobbes’s own principles and goals, he ought to allow free speech
- Human nature + peace desiderata ≠ complete state control
Locke voices external criticisms against Hobbes
- Arguments based on principles not shared by opponent (E.g. possibility of private property outside
the state)
- Liberal conclusions ↔ liberal principles
Who was Locke?
- English philosopher and scientist
- Personal secretary of Shaftesbury
- Revolutionary, plotting regicide
- Exiled in Holland (1683-88)
- Author of Two Treatises of Government (1690)
Locke on state of nature:
- Freedom means independence, not licence
- Norms of justice still apply
Main differences with Hobbes:
- Right to use force is heavily curtailed
- No right to invade and kill preventively for personal defence
- Freedom ≠ licence
- No general right to do what you think is right
- All have the right to punish injustices
- State of nature ≠ necessarily state of war
- Property and binding contracts exist outside the state
Meaning on property:
- Respect each person’s property
- rights in their persons and external goods
- The earth in common, your labour your own
- Unclear how this argument works exactly
Limits to appropriation:
, - Spoilage condition
“The same Law of Nature, that does by this means gives us Property, does also bound that Property too…
As much as anyone can make use of to any advantage of life before it spoils; so much he may by his labour
fix a Property in. Whatsoever is beyond this, is more than his share, and belongs to others”
- Sufficiency condition
“Nor was this appropriation of any parcel of Land, by improving it, any prejudice to any other Man, since
there was still enough, and as good left… For he that leaves as much as another can make use of, does as
good as take nothing at all”
Inequality
- Beloved by the right: inequality does not matter
- But Locke’s Essay on the Poor Law shows he was no laissez-faire liberal
- Suppress alcohol, force the poor to work in workhouses
- Able-bodied men found “begging in maritime countries” shall be send to work on ships for
“three years under strict discipline, at soldier’s pay”
Locke on poverty
- Unemployment is due to “some defect in his ability or honesty, for which it is reasonable he
should suffer”
- The disabled must work as much as they can
Different social contract theories
Hobbes and Spinoza Locke
- Political society is created to secure - Political society is created to protect
self-preservation property rights
- Government is authorized to do - These rights are retained and restrict
whatever is needed for peace government power
- Disobedience is hence almost never Resistance and even rebellion is allowed
allowed against governmental overstretch
The purpose of government
- “The great and chief end therefore, of Mens uniting into Commonwealths, and putting themselves
under Government, is the Preservation of their Property”
Humans do give up two natural rights
- The right to do what you think fit for preserving your own life and those of others (partially)
- The power to punish injustices (completely)
Human theory
- Why not anarchism?
1. No impartial interpretation of morality due to general human bias towards own interests
2. People punish wrongs done against themselves too harshly, and care too little about wrongs
done to others
3. Victims often lack the power to punish wrongdoers
- All three infelicities are somehow due to human nature
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