2024 Psychology Final Exam Questions And Answers. Complete Verified Solution.

2024 Psychology Final Exam Questions And Answers. Complete Verified Solution. John B. Watson Behaviorism: person responsible for redefining psychology as the science of observable behavior neuroscience perspective a psychologist using this perspective might be interested in how our blood chemistry affects our moods and motives evolutionary psychology perspective the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection social-cultural perspective how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures Sigmund Freud Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Father of psychoanalysis. B.F. Skinner Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats Psychologists conducting research put competing ideas to the test and collect evidence double-blind procedure an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. control group vs. experimental group control group = placebo ; nothing happens to them experiment group = is the one being tested on Scientific Method A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. Psychology the science of behavior and mental processes Nature is to nurture as genetics is to experience psychologists defend their experimental research with animals animals' biology can tell us much about our own; animals are fascinating and should be studied; experiments with animals help animals nature the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions nurture (v.) to bring up, care for, train, nourish; (n.) rearing, training, upbringing Correlation A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. case study a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Thalamus the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons Cerebellum A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. Medulla the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing Endorphins "morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. a neurosurgeon stimulating the right motor cortex a person would most likely move their leg reflex a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus; for example, touching a newborn child's cheek and they root for a nipple sympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations autonomic nervous system The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. pituitary gland The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. also known as the master gland parts of the limbic system amygdala and hippocampus Hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion Damage to the brain's right hemisphere is most likely to reduce a person's ability to make inferences NREM sleep stage most likely to experience hallucinations in this sleep stage REM sleep stage rapid eye movement, most known for dreaming, brain wave activity is similar to wakeful brain waves latent content of dreams The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis. Sigmund Freud was interested in this 23 chromosomes When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes... fraternal twins twins who come from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm identical twins twins who come from one fertilized egg; twins having the same heredity puberty Developmental stage at which a person becomes capable of reproduction; beginning of adolescence Erikson's Stages of Development 1. trust vs. mistrust (infant to 1 year) 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years) 3. initiative vs. guilt(3-6 years) 4. competency vs. inferiority (6-12 years) 5. identity vs. role confusion (teens into 20's) 6. intimacy vs. isolation (20's to 40's) 7. generativity vs. stagnation (40's to 60's) 8. integrity vs. despair (60's and up) **Ages are approximate forging an identity In Erikson's stages, the primary task during adolescence is Mental Tendency a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in past experiences and our assumptions and expectations perceptual set a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way--it reflects our experiences, assumptions, and expectations subliminal stimuli stimuli that are below the level of conscious awareness Sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events grouping The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into meaningful groups shape constancy the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina perceptual constancy perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change sensory interaction the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. generalization (classical conditioning) the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses top-down processing the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole bottom-up processing analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events operant conditioning the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses prosocial behavior socially desirable behavior that benefits others observational learning learning by observing others; also called social learning modeling/observational learning learning through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences of that behavior reinforcement schedule the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval Gestalt Psychology a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts psychological experts agree that watching repeated violence on tv is a risk factor for a viewer's increased aggession Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if they are consistent depth perception the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance Studies of adoption seek to understand genetic influences on personality mainly by evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents. Piaget theory of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage ( birth -24 months) Preoperational stage (2-7) play activities help the child to understand life events and relationships. Concrete operational stage (7-11) concrete objects, logical thinking, incorporates another's perspective. Formal operational stage - (11 and older) abstract thinking. Although Piaget's stage theory continues to inform our understanding of children's thinking, many researchers believe that the stages begin earlier and is more continuous than he realized frontal lobe The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior. pain or vigorous exercise Endorphins are released in the brain in response to _________________ Synapse the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron The cognitive perspective in psychology how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information The humanistic perspective in psychology focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person's self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one's potential lab environment an artificial setting for experimentation in which the researcher constructs the desired conditions