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Summary: Nutritional Neurosciences
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A summary of all lectures in the course 'Nutritional Neurosciences'.
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Summary, HNE-51306: Nutritional NeurosciencesAcademic Year 2017 – 2018
Wageningen University
Lectures
Lecture 1-2: Introduction to Nutritional Neuroscience 1
Food is necessary for survival and it is a primary reward. A primary brain function is
maintaining homeostasis. Food absorption is a homeostatic challenge. The brain strives to
automate responses and minimize cognitive ‘interference’. Your brain is involved with food
decisions.
The human nervous system exists from the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The brain is also part of the human nervous system. The brain contains
cerebral arteries and veins. The brain needs a lot of blood, because blood brings oxygen,
glucose and hormones. Glucose is the main fuel of the brain.
The brainstem is the extension of the spinal cord. It has three subdivision; the midbrain, pons
and medulla. Brainstem functions are:
- Control of the heart and breathing rate;
- Processing gut signals;
- Reward processing.
The brainstem receives/processes multiple GI signals. The midbrain has autonomic
functions. It also contains the substantia nigra and VTA, which contain dopamine neurons.
Dopamine neurons play a role in the reward circuit.
The cerebellum is also known as the small brain. It has multiple functions:
- Motor control: This is a classic view and well-established.
- Cognitive functions: There is mounting evidence for this.
- Feeding control: There is mounting evidence for this.
- It may link somatic and visceral systems, but this is still under investigation.
The brain has specific terms for navigating. Medial is near the midline. Lateral is near the
outer edge. You can also combine these specific terms. The top of the head is superior and
the feet are inferior.
,Gender differences in brain morphology and function can be substantial. The greatest effects
in regions of the brain are affected by sex hormones during brain development. Several fMRI
studies show effect of menstrual cycle/sex hormones on food reward responses.
Diet can also show difference in the brain morphology. A diet that is high in trans-fat is
associated with lower total brain volume as well as lower cognitive performance. However, it
is hard to study causality.
The forebrain exists of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia and the diencephalon. The
cerebral cortex consists of two hemispheres and these hemispheres contain four lobes.
1. The frontal lobe plays a part in stimulus evaluation and decision making. It also plays
a part in controlling movement and, therefore, planning behaviour. Its relevant
subparts are the orbitofrontal cortex, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the medial
prefrontal cortex.
2. The parietal lobe is involved in somatosensory processing, controls bodily sensations
and is involved in visual processing, specifically for the dorsal stream (= ‘where’).
3. The temporal lobe is involved in auditory processing and visual processing. It also
has a connections with the hippocampus (and therefore a limbic area).
4. The occipital lobe plays a role in visual processing.
The insula is part of the insular cortex. It is hidden in the lateral sulcus and concealed by
parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The functions of the insula are: ‘limbic’ area,
emotion, interoception, and homeostasis.
- The anterior insula is involved in olfactory, gustatory and limbic functions; subjective
feelings.
- The posterior insula is involved in the perception of the bodily sensations, e.g. pain,
visceral sensations, gastric distension.
The insula is a key connecting area. It connects with S2, the amygdala, and the prefrontal
cortex.
The limbic system is sometimes seen as the fifth lobe of the forebrain. It is subcortical and it
is involved in emotion, learning, motivation and autonomic functions. The key players in this
system are the amygdala, the hippocampus and the hypothalamus. Other/associated areas
include: the basal ganglia (‘reward’), orbitofrontal cortex, and the piriform cortex (smell).
The hippocampus is shaped like a sea horse. It is found in the medial temporal lobe. It is
involved in the formation of memories and in forming associated (and, thus, also in dietary
learning). It also plays a part in spatial navigation.
The amygdala controls autonomic, emotional and sexual behaviour. It causes fear, arousal
and emotions (pleasant as well as unpleasant). It couples learned cues to adaptive
response.
The basal ganglia is involved in motor control and reward processing. Reward processing
happens by an approach – avoidance technique. The striatum consists of the putamen, the
pallidum and the caudate.
The diencephalon exists of the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus is involved in
sensory relay. The hypothalamus plays an important role in homeostasis. It integrates with
hormones. The energy intake regulation is also controlled by the hypothalamus, as well as
thirst.
The hypothalamus integrates neural and hormonal signals. It is sensitive to e.g. glucose,
insulin, leptin, ghrelin, PYY, CCK, GLP-1 and other neuropeptides, like NPY, AgRP/POMC,
αMSH.
, The spinal cord is, like the brain, part of the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous
system contains twelve cranial nerves. The receptor cells are like sensors. The peripheral
nervous system has an autonomic and a somatic part. The autonomic system consists of:
- Parasympathetic system: Rest and digest/maintenance, acetylcholine
- Sympathetic system: Action (fight, flight, freeze), norepinephrine (= noradrenalin)
The peripheral nervous system is important for sensory perception and nutrient sensing. The
most relevant nerves are the sensory nerves in the head and the vagus nerve (X).
Vision is caused by the cranial nerve II. The thalamic nuclei are also important in this
process. The primary and secondary visual cortex are found in the occipital and
temporal/parietal lobe.
Olfaction goes via the olfactory nerve (CN I). The olfactory molecules follow a route via the
olfactory bulb, the piriform cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex.
Gustation identifies the substances which promote/disrupt the homeostasis. The tongue,
papillae, taste buds and taste receptor cells are involved in this process, as well as the CN
VII facial, IX glossopharyngeal and the X vagus.
The trigeminal sense is caused by the CN V, which has three branches. It causes ‘pain’ (hot,
cool, carbonation). The brainstem, thalamus, somatosensory cortex, and the limbic system
are involved in this process.
The vagus nerve (X) innervates in the mouth/throat, the GI tract, liver, kidneys, etc. It is a sort
of gut-brain ‘highway’.
Lecture 3-4: Methods of measuring the brain: EEG (and MEG)
EEG stands for ElectroEncephaloGraphy. It measures the electricity from the brain (in
voltage). Voltage is the electrical pressure or potential. A current is the number of charged
partciles that flow past a given point in a specific amount of time. Resistance is the ability to
keep charged particles from passing. The resistance depends on the composition, length,
and diameter. Voltage, current and resistance can be applied in Ohm’s law (V = I * R).
In EEG postsynaptic potentials are measured. To measure a signal, multiple neurons, and
thus, dipoles should be active. So, synchronization and direction of neurons are important in
detection of the signal.
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