PERSPECTIVE KEY IDEAS KEY THEORISTS/THINKERS SUPPORTING EVIDENCE CRITICISMS/LIMITATIONS
Functionalism Take quite a positive DURKHEIM: Conformity to social rules DURKHEIM DURKHEIM
viewpoint of crime and He argued traditional societies were held Does provide a convincing Talks about crime in very general
see it as having many together by a strong religiously based ‘collective explanation of why crime is terms, says crime is functional but
purposes that help conscience’ or value consensus which impeded higher in industrial societies doesn’t distinguish what types of
society to function criminal and deviant behaviour than traditional societies and crime – some may be so harmful
effectively Urbanisation lead to competition for work and a why it is inevitable in society they will always be dysfunctional
Durkheim adopted this more complex secular society, which made crime His claim crime and He is suggesting the CJS benefits all
perspective and saw more likely punishment is functional is members of society but Marxist +
society as like a living He also believed that industrial societies were plausible Feminist analysis of crime
organism in which the more prone to anomie, where social norms Functionalism is useful in demonstrates that not all criminals
different parts and where unclear or conflicting, making crime more showing deviance is integral are punished equally
social intuitions likely to society Interactionists would suggest that
functioned to keep the Durkheim argued crime is an inevitable aspect of MERTON whether or not a crime is
whole arrangement social life, because not every member of society Hannon and Defronzo functional cannot be determined
going can be equally committed to the collective (1998) provided some objectively; surely it depends on an
They believe: sentiments as each individuals is exposed to empirical support in the individual’s relationship to the
1. A limited amount different influences and circumstances USA, they found those with crime.
of crime was Durkheim imagined a society of saints, higher levels of welfare Functionalists assume that society
necessary population by perfect individuals where they provision had lower levels of has universal norms and values but
2. Crime has positive would be no murder or robbery but deviance crime, as it they argued it postmodernist argue society is now
functions would still exist reduced level of strain so diverse that it no such thing as
3. Too much crime However too much crime can be dysfunctional as Subcultural theories have ‘normal’
however can be he argued all social change begins with some tried to refine and develop MERTON
bad for society and form of deviance. this theory Criticised for dressing up common
help bring about its MERTON: Strain Theory Merton has been applauded sense, by stating that criminals are
collapse Merton drew upon Durkheim’s concept of for his recognition that the seeking financial success by
Examples of functions: anomie and said it occurred because people American Dream is central illegitimate means
- Strengthens collective found themselves in a situation where they felt to culture and that the class Laurie Taylor (1971), writing from
values they couldn’t achieve the American Dream, and structure militates against a conflict perspective, criticized
- Enabling social change so they experienced strain to find a solution. equal opportunities to be Merton for not carrying his analysis
- Safety valve Merton identified 5 adaptions to strain: successful far enough e.g. failing to consider
- Warning device 1. Conformity who makes laws and who benefits
- Degradation 2. Innovation from the laws
ceremonies 3. Ritualism
- Reaffirms boundaries 4. Retreatism
5. Rebellion
Merton also proposed manifest and latent
functions of crime (the obvious purpose and
hidden and underlying purpose
Functionalist A subculture is a social, COHEN: Status Frustration (1965) COHEN COHEN
ethnic or economic Cohen argued deviance was collective and didn’t Combination of structural Box argued that Cohen theory only
,Subcultural group with a particular always give benefits and interactionist applies to a small number of
characteristic within a The delinquent subculture was mostly working approaches offenders
Theories culture or society, an class due to material and cultural deprivation Still used today to explain Too foucsed on working calss crime
identifiable, distinct Stuck at the bottom, they experience status appeal of joining gangs Willis found the boys didn’t have
group with separate frustration and dissatisfaction, as they cant Organization outside of the same goals as the middle
norms and values achieve goals legitimately through education so education could have a classes
Crime and deviance is a feel inadequate and experience status frustration bigger role to play Girls and women?
consequence of the This results in them rejecting the goals of the CLOWARD AND OHLIN Role of stereotyping
values held by specific majority and creating new norms and so Research suggests that CLOWARD AND OHLIN
groups (often the delinquent subcultures are formed organised crime (Hobbs, Bad Large scale organised crime is
working class). Status frustration results in crime caused by the Business 1998) limited in the UK, tends to be
Subcultures react to strain between cultural goals and institutional MILLER loose-knit, individual criminals are
their inability to means of getting them. Willmott (1966) found some entrepreneurs rather than
achieve the goals of the CLOWARD AND OHLIN: Illegitimate Opportunity evidence of focal concerns ‘employed’
rest of society Structure (1961) Doesn’t consider female crime or
(developed from strain Developed from Merton, lack of opportunity is a that committed by the upper
theory). force for crime classes
Some subcultures Type of crime committed depends on illegitimate David Downes (1966) found no
develop these values opportunity structure in their area: evidence to suggest the existence
because: 1. Organised crime subculture producing a of status frustration or illegitimate
1. They are acting out criminal career: if there are successful opportunity structure
the concerns of criminal role models, mirrors legitimate MILLER
their culture. business (Gang Leader for a Day) Could be seen as placing blame on
2. This is due to 2. Inner city areas have conflict subcultures: no working class culture
socialization for local criminal subculture, Pitts found that Similar to underclass arguments of
many generations. inner-city London gang members was Murray
3. It is the result of necessary for protection Bordua says that they will have
the need to ensure 3. Retreatist subcultures: develop if they contact with middle class
a pool of low cannot access the criminal or conflict dominated institutions and it is
skilled labor. These subcultures unrealistic to say that these have
repetitive jobs MILLER: Focal Concerns (1958) no impact.
would not be Miller (1962) argued deviant behaviour was not Willmott’s (1966) British study of
endured without due to the inability for lower classes to achieve working class district of London
the above culture. success but because a distinctive lower class found little evidence of delinquent
The culture subculture exists subculture.
provides methods Working class concerns included: toughness, MATZA
to deal with these smartness, excitement, trouble, fate and trouble If a youth wishes to gian control
jobs, and provides These concerns cause confrontation with the over a destiny, why commit a crime
excitement. middle classes Makes no attempt to explain youth
delinquency in a wider frame work
MATZA: Delinquency and Drift (1964) Taylor, Walton and Young raise
Matza argued that we all hold conventional doubts about the view that those
, values and subterranean values, however most who are using techniques of
generally control them neutralisation are never
He suggests that delinquents are more likely than challenging dominant values in
most of us to behave according to subterranean society
values in ‘inappropriate situations’ Box suggests evidence that
Youth is a period where they lack any control criminals may not be remorseful
over their own lives – this period of drift causes may not be sincere
adolescents from the constraining bonds of Cynics have pinpointed the
society difficulty in operationalizing the
concept of drift.
Classical Capitalism is MARX Marxist theories of crime Feminist sociologists argued that
criminogenic He saw criminals as part of the have the virtue of recognizes Marxist theories put undue
Marxism Law is made by the lumpenproletariat, those who aren’t involved in that the law can reflect emphasis upon class inequality,
capitalist elite and legitimate employment sectional interests rather ignoring role of patriarchy
serves their interests Capitalism itself played a key role in generating than the public interest Marxist have also been accused of
All class, commit crime crime Avoids functionalism narrow neglecting racism
and the crimes of the Believed the state will support the ruling class focus on law breaking Criticised for assuming that a
powerful are more and pass laws to reinforce their economic power Compelling evidence that socialist system could eradicate
costly than street crime and control law enforcement in relation crime
The state practices BONGER: Criminogenic capitalism to white-collar and Neo-marxist theories which
Selective Law Argues that capitalism by its very nature is corporate crime is recognizes that the state has some
Enforcement, mainly criminogenic, the competitive and materialistic considerably less punitive autonomy are more plausible,
concerns itself with conditions of capitalism allows crime to flourish than in relation in Jones (2009) points out that the
policing and punishing Much of criminal law was created in a culture of conventional crime activities of capitalists are
the marginalised individual and respect for private property sometimes criminalized, he gives
Capitalism encourages people to compete in the example of insider trading,
order to survive – consequence is the promotion pollution, health and safety,
of an egotist outlook monopolies etc.
CHAMBLISS: Law breaking Many laws in capitalist societies
Greed, self interest and hostility generated by clearly are in the general interest
the capitalist system motivates many crimes at for example laws relating to
all levels within society robbery, burglary, assault, rape,
In low-income areas, people use what they’ve incest and traffic laws
got to get what they can Left-Realist tend to see Marxist
In high income brackets, people have more theories as putting undue
effective means at their dispoal to grab a larger emphasis on corporate crime, at
share of the ‘cake’ the expense of other types of
Gordon argued that crime Is rational in a dog- crime, and as being largely
eat-dog society, particularly in the USA with indifferent to the suffering of the
minimal welfare services victims of crime. Left realists argue
REIMAN AND LEIGHTON/SINDER: Law enforcement that crimes such as burglary,
If Marxist were right, the class profile of the robbery and other violent crimes
Functionalism Take quite a positive DURKHEIM: Conformity to social rules DURKHEIM DURKHEIM
viewpoint of crime and He argued traditional societies were held Does provide a convincing Talks about crime in very general
see it as having many together by a strong religiously based ‘collective explanation of why crime is terms, says crime is functional but
purposes that help conscience’ or value consensus which impeded higher in industrial societies doesn’t distinguish what types of
society to function criminal and deviant behaviour than traditional societies and crime – some may be so harmful
effectively Urbanisation lead to competition for work and a why it is inevitable in society they will always be dysfunctional
Durkheim adopted this more complex secular society, which made crime His claim crime and He is suggesting the CJS benefits all
perspective and saw more likely punishment is functional is members of society but Marxist +
society as like a living He also believed that industrial societies were plausible Feminist analysis of crime
organism in which the more prone to anomie, where social norms Functionalism is useful in demonstrates that not all criminals
different parts and where unclear or conflicting, making crime more showing deviance is integral are punished equally
social intuitions likely to society Interactionists would suggest that
functioned to keep the Durkheim argued crime is an inevitable aspect of MERTON whether or not a crime is
whole arrangement social life, because not every member of society Hannon and Defronzo functional cannot be determined
going can be equally committed to the collective (1998) provided some objectively; surely it depends on an
They believe: sentiments as each individuals is exposed to empirical support in the individual’s relationship to the
1. A limited amount different influences and circumstances USA, they found those with crime.
of crime was Durkheim imagined a society of saints, higher levels of welfare Functionalists assume that society
necessary population by perfect individuals where they provision had lower levels of has universal norms and values but
2. Crime has positive would be no murder or robbery but deviance crime, as it they argued it postmodernist argue society is now
functions would still exist reduced level of strain so diverse that it no such thing as
3. Too much crime However too much crime can be dysfunctional as Subcultural theories have ‘normal’
however can be he argued all social change begins with some tried to refine and develop MERTON
bad for society and form of deviance. this theory Criticised for dressing up common
help bring about its MERTON: Strain Theory Merton has been applauded sense, by stating that criminals are
collapse Merton drew upon Durkheim’s concept of for his recognition that the seeking financial success by
Examples of functions: anomie and said it occurred because people American Dream is central illegitimate means
- Strengthens collective found themselves in a situation where they felt to culture and that the class Laurie Taylor (1971), writing from
values they couldn’t achieve the American Dream, and structure militates against a conflict perspective, criticized
- Enabling social change so they experienced strain to find a solution. equal opportunities to be Merton for not carrying his analysis
- Safety valve Merton identified 5 adaptions to strain: successful far enough e.g. failing to consider
- Warning device 1. Conformity who makes laws and who benefits
- Degradation 2. Innovation from the laws
ceremonies 3. Ritualism
- Reaffirms boundaries 4. Retreatism
5. Rebellion
Merton also proposed manifest and latent
functions of crime (the obvious purpose and
hidden and underlying purpose
Functionalist A subculture is a social, COHEN: Status Frustration (1965) COHEN COHEN
ethnic or economic Cohen argued deviance was collective and didn’t Combination of structural Box argued that Cohen theory only
,Subcultural group with a particular always give benefits and interactionist applies to a small number of
characteristic within a The delinquent subculture was mostly working approaches offenders
Theories culture or society, an class due to material and cultural deprivation Still used today to explain Too foucsed on working calss crime
identifiable, distinct Stuck at the bottom, they experience status appeal of joining gangs Willis found the boys didn’t have
group with separate frustration and dissatisfaction, as they cant Organization outside of the same goals as the middle
norms and values achieve goals legitimately through education so education could have a classes
Crime and deviance is a feel inadequate and experience status frustration bigger role to play Girls and women?
consequence of the This results in them rejecting the goals of the CLOWARD AND OHLIN Role of stereotyping
values held by specific majority and creating new norms and so Research suggests that CLOWARD AND OHLIN
groups (often the delinquent subcultures are formed organised crime (Hobbs, Bad Large scale organised crime is
working class). Status frustration results in crime caused by the Business 1998) limited in the UK, tends to be
Subcultures react to strain between cultural goals and institutional MILLER loose-knit, individual criminals are
their inability to means of getting them. Willmott (1966) found some entrepreneurs rather than
achieve the goals of the CLOWARD AND OHLIN: Illegitimate Opportunity evidence of focal concerns ‘employed’
rest of society Structure (1961) Doesn’t consider female crime or
(developed from strain Developed from Merton, lack of opportunity is a that committed by the upper
theory). force for crime classes
Some subcultures Type of crime committed depends on illegitimate David Downes (1966) found no
develop these values opportunity structure in their area: evidence to suggest the existence
because: 1. Organised crime subculture producing a of status frustration or illegitimate
1. They are acting out criminal career: if there are successful opportunity structure
the concerns of criminal role models, mirrors legitimate MILLER
their culture. business (Gang Leader for a Day) Could be seen as placing blame on
2. This is due to 2. Inner city areas have conflict subcultures: no working class culture
socialization for local criminal subculture, Pitts found that Similar to underclass arguments of
many generations. inner-city London gang members was Murray
3. It is the result of necessary for protection Bordua says that they will have
the need to ensure 3. Retreatist subcultures: develop if they contact with middle class
a pool of low cannot access the criminal or conflict dominated institutions and it is
skilled labor. These subcultures unrealistic to say that these have
repetitive jobs MILLER: Focal Concerns (1958) no impact.
would not be Miller (1962) argued deviant behaviour was not Willmott’s (1966) British study of
endured without due to the inability for lower classes to achieve working class district of London
the above culture. success but because a distinctive lower class found little evidence of delinquent
The culture subculture exists subculture.
provides methods Working class concerns included: toughness, MATZA
to deal with these smartness, excitement, trouble, fate and trouble If a youth wishes to gian control
jobs, and provides These concerns cause confrontation with the over a destiny, why commit a crime
excitement. middle classes Makes no attempt to explain youth
delinquency in a wider frame work
MATZA: Delinquency and Drift (1964) Taylor, Walton and Young raise
Matza argued that we all hold conventional doubts about the view that those
, values and subterranean values, however most who are using techniques of
generally control them neutralisation are never
He suggests that delinquents are more likely than challenging dominant values in
most of us to behave according to subterranean society
values in ‘inappropriate situations’ Box suggests evidence that
Youth is a period where they lack any control criminals may not be remorseful
over their own lives – this period of drift causes may not be sincere
adolescents from the constraining bonds of Cynics have pinpointed the
society difficulty in operationalizing the
concept of drift.
Classical Capitalism is MARX Marxist theories of crime Feminist sociologists argued that
criminogenic He saw criminals as part of the have the virtue of recognizes Marxist theories put undue
Marxism Law is made by the lumpenproletariat, those who aren’t involved in that the law can reflect emphasis upon class inequality,
capitalist elite and legitimate employment sectional interests rather ignoring role of patriarchy
serves their interests Capitalism itself played a key role in generating than the public interest Marxist have also been accused of
All class, commit crime crime Avoids functionalism narrow neglecting racism
and the crimes of the Believed the state will support the ruling class focus on law breaking Criticised for assuming that a
powerful are more and pass laws to reinforce their economic power Compelling evidence that socialist system could eradicate
costly than street crime and control law enforcement in relation crime
The state practices BONGER: Criminogenic capitalism to white-collar and Neo-marxist theories which
Selective Law Argues that capitalism by its very nature is corporate crime is recognizes that the state has some
Enforcement, mainly criminogenic, the competitive and materialistic considerably less punitive autonomy are more plausible,
concerns itself with conditions of capitalism allows crime to flourish than in relation in Jones (2009) points out that the
policing and punishing Much of criminal law was created in a culture of conventional crime activities of capitalists are
the marginalised individual and respect for private property sometimes criminalized, he gives
Capitalism encourages people to compete in the example of insider trading,
order to survive – consequence is the promotion pollution, health and safety,
of an egotist outlook monopolies etc.
CHAMBLISS: Law breaking Many laws in capitalist societies
Greed, self interest and hostility generated by clearly are in the general interest
the capitalist system motivates many crimes at for example laws relating to
all levels within society robbery, burglary, assault, rape,
In low-income areas, people use what they’ve incest and traffic laws
got to get what they can Left-Realist tend to see Marxist
In high income brackets, people have more theories as putting undue
effective means at their dispoal to grab a larger emphasis on corporate crime, at
share of the ‘cake’ the expense of other types of
Gordon argued that crime Is rational in a dog- crime, and as being largely
eat-dog society, particularly in the USA with indifferent to the suffering of the
minimal welfare services victims of crime. Left realists argue
REIMAN AND LEIGHTON/SINDER: Law enforcement that crimes such as burglary,
If Marxist were right, the class profile of the robbery and other violent crimes
