Chapter 1
The Nature of Research
Educational research takes many forms. In this chapter, we introduce the subject of
educational research and explain why knowledge of various types of research can be
of value to educators. Because research is but one method to obtain knowledge, we
describe several other ways and compare the strengths and weaknesses of each. We
also give a brief overview of several research methodologies used in education to set
the stage for a more extensive discussion of them in later chapters.
Lecture Outline
I. Some Examples of Educational Concerns
A. Teachers need to know what kinds of materials, strategies, and activities best
help students learn.
B. Counselors need to know what problems prevent students from learning and
how to help them with these problems.
C. Administrators need to know how to provide an environment for happy and
productive learning.
D. Parents need to know how to help their children succeed in school.
E. Students need to know how to study to learn as much as they can.
II. Why Research Is of Value
A. To obtain information, one can consult experts, review books and articles,
question or observe colleagues, use one’s own experience, or rely on intuition.
The answers these approaches provide, however, are not always reliable.
, B. The scientific method provides an important way to obtain accurate and reliable
information.
III. Ways of Knowing
A. Sensory Experience
1. The information we take in from our senses is the most immediate way
we have of knowing something.
2. Sensory knowledge is undependable, however, and is often incomplete.
B. Agreement with Others
1. We can try to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of our knowledge by
comparing it with the opinions of others.
2. This type of common knowledge can still be undependable.
C. Expert Opinion
1. The knowledge of experts is based primarily on what they have learned
from reading and thinking, from listening to and observing others, and from
their own experience.
2. No expert has studied all there is to know in a given field and offers
knowledge that is limited in scope.
D. Logic
1. Our intellect allows us to use sensory data to develop a new kind of
knowledge.
2. Syllogisms can be used to make logical conclusions. Syllogisms are
comprised of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. It is only
when the major and minor premises of a syllogism are both true that the
conclusion is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false, the
conclusion may or may not be true.
, 3. Example: All human beings are mortal. Sally is a human being.
Therefore, Sally is mortal.
E. The Scientific Method
1. The scientific method involves the testing of ideas in the public arena.
2. The general order of the scientific method is as follows: Identify a
problem or question; Clarify the problem; Determine the information
needed and how to obtain it; Organize the information; and Interpret the
results.
3. A common misperception of science fosters the idea that there are fixed,
final answers to particular questions. All conclusions are to be viewed as
tentative and subject to change should new ideas and new evidence arise.
IV. Types of Research
A. Quantitative and Qualitative Research
1. These research methods are based on different assumptions.
2. They also differ on the purpose of research, the methods used by
researchers, the kinds of studies undertaken, the researcher’s role, and the
degree to which generalization is possible.
3. Mixed-method research integrates both qualitative and quantitative
approaches in the same study.
4. Using multiple methods enables researchers to gather and analyze
considerably more and different kinds of data than they would be able to if
they were using just one approach.
B. Experimental Research
1. This research involves manipulating conditions and studying effects.
2. In the simplest sort of experiment, there are two contrasting methods to
be compared and an attempt is made to control for all other (extraneous)
, variables—such as student ability level, age, grade level, time, materials, and
teacher characteristics—that might affect the outcome under investigation.
3. Another form of experimental research, single-subject research, involves
the intensive study of a single individual or group over time.
C. Correlational Research
1. This research is used to determine relationships among two or more
variables and explore their implications for cause and effect.
2. The approach requires no manipulation or intervention on the part of
the researcher other than administering the instrument(s) necessary to
collect the data.
D. Causal-Comparative Research
1. This research is used to determine the cause for or the consequences of
differences between groups of people.
2. Interpretations of causal-comparative research are limited because the
researcher cannot say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause or
a result of the behavior(s) observed.
3. Causal-comparative studies are of value in identifying possible causes of
variations in the collected data.
E. Survey Research
1. This research obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a
group.
2. Surveys are often administered to individuals by mail, by telephone, in
person, or via interview.
3. Responses are tabulated and reported usually in the form of frequencies
or percentages of those who answer in a particular way to each of the
questions.
The Nature of Research
Educational research takes many forms. In this chapter, we introduce the subject of
educational research and explain why knowledge of various types of research can be
of value to educators. Because research is but one method to obtain knowledge, we
describe several other ways and compare the strengths and weaknesses of each. We
also give a brief overview of several research methodologies used in education to set
the stage for a more extensive discussion of them in later chapters.
Lecture Outline
I. Some Examples of Educational Concerns
A. Teachers need to know what kinds of materials, strategies, and activities best
help students learn.
B. Counselors need to know what problems prevent students from learning and
how to help them with these problems.
C. Administrators need to know how to provide an environment for happy and
productive learning.
D. Parents need to know how to help their children succeed in school.
E. Students need to know how to study to learn as much as they can.
II. Why Research Is of Value
A. To obtain information, one can consult experts, review books and articles,
question or observe colleagues, use one’s own experience, or rely on intuition.
The answers these approaches provide, however, are not always reliable.
, B. The scientific method provides an important way to obtain accurate and reliable
information.
III. Ways of Knowing
A. Sensory Experience
1. The information we take in from our senses is the most immediate way
we have of knowing something.
2. Sensory knowledge is undependable, however, and is often incomplete.
B. Agreement with Others
1. We can try to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of our knowledge by
comparing it with the opinions of others.
2. This type of common knowledge can still be undependable.
C. Expert Opinion
1. The knowledge of experts is based primarily on what they have learned
from reading and thinking, from listening to and observing others, and from
their own experience.
2. No expert has studied all there is to know in a given field and offers
knowledge that is limited in scope.
D. Logic
1. Our intellect allows us to use sensory data to develop a new kind of
knowledge.
2. Syllogisms can be used to make logical conclusions. Syllogisms are
comprised of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. It is only
when the major and minor premises of a syllogism are both true that the
conclusion is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false, the
conclusion may or may not be true.
, 3. Example: All human beings are mortal. Sally is a human being.
Therefore, Sally is mortal.
E. The Scientific Method
1. The scientific method involves the testing of ideas in the public arena.
2. The general order of the scientific method is as follows: Identify a
problem or question; Clarify the problem; Determine the information
needed and how to obtain it; Organize the information; and Interpret the
results.
3. A common misperception of science fosters the idea that there are fixed,
final answers to particular questions. All conclusions are to be viewed as
tentative and subject to change should new ideas and new evidence arise.
IV. Types of Research
A. Quantitative and Qualitative Research
1. These research methods are based on different assumptions.
2. They also differ on the purpose of research, the methods used by
researchers, the kinds of studies undertaken, the researcher’s role, and the
degree to which generalization is possible.
3. Mixed-method research integrates both qualitative and quantitative
approaches in the same study.
4. Using multiple methods enables researchers to gather and analyze
considerably more and different kinds of data than they would be able to if
they were using just one approach.
B. Experimental Research
1. This research involves manipulating conditions and studying effects.
2. In the simplest sort of experiment, there are two contrasting methods to
be compared and an attempt is made to control for all other (extraneous)
, variables—such as student ability level, age, grade level, time, materials, and
teacher characteristics—that might affect the outcome under investigation.
3. Another form of experimental research, single-subject research, involves
the intensive study of a single individual or group over time.
C. Correlational Research
1. This research is used to determine relationships among two or more
variables and explore their implications for cause and effect.
2. The approach requires no manipulation or intervention on the part of
the researcher other than administering the instrument(s) necessary to
collect the data.
D. Causal-Comparative Research
1. This research is used to determine the cause for or the consequences of
differences between groups of people.
2. Interpretations of causal-comparative research are limited because the
researcher cannot say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause or
a result of the behavior(s) observed.
3. Causal-comparative studies are of value in identifying possible causes of
variations in the collected data.
E. Survey Research
1. This research obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a
group.
2. Surveys are often administered to individuals by mail, by telephone, in
person, or via interview.
3. Responses are tabulated and reported usually in the form of frequencies
or percentages of those who answer in a particular way to each of the
questions.
