Chapter 9
Motivational Theories
● Motives: Are needs, wants, interests and desires that push people in certain
directions.
○ Motivation: Involves goal-directed behaviour.
Drive Theories
● Drive was derived from Wlter Cannon’s observation that organisms seek to
maintain Homeostasis.
○ Homeostasis: A state of physical equilibrium or stability.
● Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis to behaviour.
○ A Drive: Is a hypothetical, internal state of tension that motivates an
organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension.
● The unpleasant state of tension is seen as disruptions of the preferred
equilibrium.
● When individuals experience a drive, they are motivated to pursue actions that
will lead to drive reduction.
Eg. If you go without food for a while, you begin to experience some
discomfort. This internal tension (the drive) motivates you to obtain food.
Eating reduces the drive and restores physiological equilibrium.
● Drive theories cannot explain all motivation.
○ Homeostasis appears irrelevant to some human motives, like desire for
knowledge or learning.
■ The times you eat when you aren't hungry can't be explained by
drive theories.
Page 1
,Incentive Theories
● Propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states.
● Incentive: Is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour.
Eg. Monetary prize or an A on your exam
Differences between Drive and incentive
Drive Theories Incentive Theories
Emphasise how internal states of tension Emphasise how external stimuli pulls
push people in a certain direction. people in a certain direction.
Source of motivation lies within the Source of motivation lies outside of
organism. the organism.
Emphasises the role of homeostasis. Emphasises the role of the
environment.
Evolutionary Theories
● The motives of humans and of other species are the product of evolution.
○ Argue that natural selection favours behaviours that maximise
reproductive success. (Passing on genes).
■ They explain motives such as affiliation, achievement, dominance,
aggression and sex drive in terms of their adaptive value.
● Evolutionary analyses of motivation are based on the premise that motives can
best be understood in terms of the adaptive problems they solved over the
course of history.
Eg. The need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than in women
because it could facilitate males’ reproductive success in a variety of ways.
Females may prefer mating with dominant males, dominant males may try to
lure females from subordinate males, dominant males may intimidate male
Page 2
, rivals in competition for sexual access
● Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point.
○ Humans display an enormous diversity of motives.
■ local conditions and experiences are likely to affect the way in
which these theories show themselves in practice.
● Motivation results from the interaction between the individuals and the
environment, and could be learned through a person’s own experiences.
Motivation of Hunger and eating
Biological factors in the regulation of hunger
Brain Regulation
● Hunger is controlled by the brain.
○ The hypothalamus controls
hunger and the regulation of
multiple different biological
needs.
● The lateral hypothalamus and
ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus were the brain's on-of
switches for the control of hunger.
● Currently the belief is that the lateral
and ventromedial areas of the
hypothalamus are elements in the neural circuitry that regulates hunger.
○ However they are not the key elements, or on-off centres.
● Today scientists believe that 2 other areas of the hypothalamus (Arcuate nucleus
and the paraventricular nucleus) play larger roles in the modulation of hunger.
● New theories focus on the neural circuits that pass through areas of the
hypothalamus rather than on anatomical centres in the brain.
Page 3
Motivational Theories
● Motives: Are needs, wants, interests and desires that push people in certain
directions.
○ Motivation: Involves goal-directed behaviour.
Drive Theories
● Drive was derived from Wlter Cannon’s observation that organisms seek to
maintain Homeostasis.
○ Homeostasis: A state of physical equilibrium or stability.
● Drive theories apply the concept of homeostasis to behaviour.
○ A Drive: Is a hypothetical, internal state of tension that motivates an
organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension.
● The unpleasant state of tension is seen as disruptions of the preferred
equilibrium.
● When individuals experience a drive, they are motivated to pursue actions that
will lead to drive reduction.
Eg. If you go without food for a while, you begin to experience some
discomfort. This internal tension (the drive) motivates you to obtain food.
Eating reduces the drive and restores physiological equilibrium.
● Drive theories cannot explain all motivation.
○ Homeostasis appears irrelevant to some human motives, like desire for
knowledge or learning.
■ The times you eat when you aren't hungry can't be explained by
drive theories.
Page 1
,Incentive Theories
● Propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states.
● Incentive: Is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour.
Eg. Monetary prize or an A on your exam
Differences between Drive and incentive
Drive Theories Incentive Theories
Emphasise how internal states of tension Emphasise how external stimuli pulls
push people in a certain direction. people in a certain direction.
Source of motivation lies within the Source of motivation lies outside of
organism. the organism.
Emphasises the role of homeostasis. Emphasises the role of the
environment.
Evolutionary Theories
● The motives of humans and of other species are the product of evolution.
○ Argue that natural selection favours behaviours that maximise
reproductive success. (Passing on genes).
■ They explain motives such as affiliation, achievement, dominance,
aggression and sex drive in terms of their adaptive value.
● Evolutionary analyses of motivation are based on the premise that motives can
best be understood in terms of the adaptive problems they solved over the
course of history.
Eg. The need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than in women
because it could facilitate males’ reproductive success in a variety of ways.
Females may prefer mating with dominant males, dominant males may try to
lure females from subordinate males, dominant males may intimidate male
Page 2
, rivals in competition for sexual access
● Motivational theorists of all persuasions agree on one point.
○ Humans display an enormous diversity of motives.
■ local conditions and experiences are likely to affect the way in
which these theories show themselves in practice.
● Motivation results from the interaction between the individuals and the
environment, and could be learned through a person’s own experiences.
Motivation of Hunger and eating
Biological factors in the regulation of hunger
Brain Regulation
● Hunger is controlled by the brain.
○ The hypothalamus controls
hunger and the regulation of
multiple different biological
needs.
● The lateral hypothalamus and
ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus were the brain's on-of
switches for the control of hunger.
● Currently the belief is that the lateral
and ventromedial areas of the
hypothalamus are elements in the neural circuitry that regulates hunger.
○ However they are not the key elements, or on-off centres.
● Today scientists believe that 2 other areas of the hypothalamus (Arcuate nucleus
and the paraventricular nucleus) play larger roles in the modulation of hunger.
● New theories focus on the neural circuits that pass through areas of the
hypothalamus rather than on anatomical centres in the brain.
Page 3
