GENDER:
Spender- male as norm/ women are an extension of men/ husband and wife/ women/ Mr and Mrs
Eakins and Eakins- observed 7 university lectures/ found men take longer turns than women/ men=
10-17/ women= 3-10
Howe- Men are active participants in the conversation/ women are active listeners
Hyde- Gender Similarities Hypothesis
Lakoff- deficit model/ women’s speech is weaker than men’s/ women use questions, euphemistic
politeness, repetition, and uptalk
Tannen- report v rapport/ women seek solidarity/ men seek superiority/ advice v feelings/ intimacy v
independence/ compromise v conflict/ status v support
Coates- men are competitive/ women are cooperative/ men control the topic of conversation
Zimmerman- men interrupted 96-100% of mixed-sex conversations
Stanley- 220 terms to describe promiscuous female/ 20 to describe promiscuous male/ negative
connotations associated with female (weak/petty/slut)/ unmarried woman is a spinster/ unmarried
man is a bachelor/ rude woman is called a bitch/ rude man is called tough
Jespersen- women’s speech is littered with non-fluency features such as repetition, fillers, recasting
Fishman- women do the conversational shitwork
, OCCUPATION:
Tracy and Eisenburg- criticism roleplay/ men showed concern when in both a subordinate and
superior position/ woman only showed concern in a higher role
Michael Nelson- wanted to see if a business English existed/ looked at the BNC and found BE lacked
social, family and personal lexis/ BNC is emotive and informal/ BE is formal and neutral/ BNC- forest,
home, shed/ BE- office, department, boardroom/ BE is more positive- greater, new, best/ BNC is
negative- bloody, dead, nice
Kim and Elder- Korean and American air staff/ miscommunications occurred due to vagueness,
idiomatic expressions and intonation/ aviation lexis is highly restricted and specialised/ e.g., delta,
knots, heading/ descend and climb instead of ascend as they are too similar and cause confusion
Koester- phatic talk is very important in the workplace/ build’s solidarity/ helps build interpersonal
relationships/ some view it as unprofessional and harmful to productivity
Herbert and Straight- compliments came from authority to subordinate not the other way round as
it could be seen as condescending and harmful to workplace relationships
Hornyak- small talk initiated by individual with most status first
Plain English Campaign- argues for lack of jargon and restricted occupational lexis to make official
bodies easter to understand/ awards a crystal mark to companies that do so
Drew and Heritage- inferential frameworks/ asymmetrical relationships in the workplace/ idea that
an individual is restricted to the language they use/ individuals need a required level of knowledge in
order to stay in that occupational group
Howard Giles- groups everyday lexis and occupational jargon together/ doesn’t want to exclude or
alienate individuals not part of the group/ convergence/ divergence/ CAT
Grice’s Maxims- important to occupational lexis/ manner/ relation/ quality/ quantity
John Swales- discourse community has 4 strands/ possess a required level of knowledge/ common
goals/ communicate internally using various genres/ use specialised and restricted lexis
Spender- male as norm/ women are an extension of men/ husband and wife/ women/ Mr and Mrs
Eakins and Eakins- observed 7 university lectures/ found men take longer turns than women/ men=
10-17/ women= 3-10
Howe- Men are active participants in the conversation/ women are active listeners
Hyde- Gender Similarities Hypothesis
Lakoff- deficit model/ women’s speech is weaker than men’s/ women use questions, euphemistic
politeness, repetition, and uptalk
Tannen- report v rapport/ women seek solidarity/ men seek superiority/ advice v feelings/ intimacy v
independence/ compromise v conflict/ status v support
Coates- men are competitive/ women are cooperative/ men control the topic of conversation
Zimmerman- men interrupted 96-100% of mixed-sex conversations
Stanley- 220 terms to describe promiscuous female/ 20 to describe promiscuous male/ negative
connotations associated with female (weak/petty/slut)/ unmarried woman is a spinster/ unmarried
man is a bachelor/ rude woman is called a bitch/ rude man is called tough
Jespersen- women’s speech is littered with non-fluency features such as repetition, fillers, recasting
Fishman- women do the conversational shitwork
, OCCUPATION:
Tracy and Eisenburg- criticism roleplay/ men showed concern when in both a subordinate and
superior position/ woman only showed concern in a higher role
Michael Nelson- wanted to see if a business English existed/ looked at the BNC and found BE lacked
social, family and personal lexis/ BNC is emotive and informal/ BE is formal and neutral/ BNC- forest,
home, shed/ BE- office, department, boardroom/ BE is more positive- greater, new, best/ BNC is
negative- bloody, dead, nice
Kim and Elder- Korean and American air staff/ miscommunications occurred due to vagueness,
idiomatic expressions and intonation/ aviation lexis is highly restricted and specialised/ e.g., delta,
knots, heading/ descend and climb instead of ascend as they are too similar and cause confusion
Koester- phatic talk is very important in the workplace/ build’s solidarity/ helps build interpersonal
relationships/ some view it as unprofessional and harmful to productivity
Herbert and Straight- compliments came from authority to subordinate not the other way round as
it could be seen as condescending and harmful to workplace relationships
Hornyak- small talk initiated by individual with most status first
Plain English Campaign- argues for lack of jargon and restricted occupational lexis to make official
bodies easter to understand/ awards a crystal mark to companies that do so
Drew and Heritage- inferential frameworks/ asymmetrical relationships in the workplace/ idea that
an individual is restricted to the language they use/ individuals need a required level of knowledge in
order to stay in that occupational group
Howard Giles- groups everyday lexis and occupational jargon together/ doesn’t want to exclude or
alienate individuals not part of the group/ convergence/ divergence/ CAT
Grice’s Maxims- important to occupational lexis/ manner/ relation/ quality/ quantity
John Swales- discourse community has 4 strands/ possess a required level of knowledge/ common
goals/ communicate internally using various genres/ use specialised and restricted lexis
