D265 Critical Thinking Study

D265 Critical Thinking Study Critical Thinking Ans- The ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning/to be critical of your own reasoning. Propositions Ans- The fundamental building blocks of arguments. They are a statement that can be true or false. Simple propositions Ans- They have no internal logic structure, they are simply true or false based on how the world is. Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens. Ans- Simple proposition Complex propositions Ans- They have internal logic structure, and whether they are true or false depends on if their parts are true or false. If freedom should be the highest value for its citizens, then we should promote it in our laws and policies. Ans- Complex proposition Argument Ans- Contains at least two statements or propositions: a conclusion and one or more premises that lend support to the conclusion. Premise Ans- A proposition that supports the conclusion. Conclusion Indicators Ans- Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result. Premise Indicators Ans- Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, indicated by. Conclusion Ans- The claim that the whole argument is intended to support or prove. Deduction Ans- Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion. Types of arguments that are deductive Ans- Mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition. Induction Ans- Arguments where the premises make the conclusion likely to be true. Types of arguments that are inductive/ampliative Ans- Analogies, authority, casual inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations. P1: Monty is in Bejing P2: It is impossible to get here from Bejing in an afternoon Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party Ans- Deductive argument P1: Monty is really shy P2: Monty rarely goes to parties Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party Ans- Inductive/ampliative argument Soundness/Validity Ans- Elements of a deductive argument Validity Ans- If true, the premises make the conclusion true Soundness Ans- The argument's premises guarantee the conclusion when true (Validity), and all premises are true Strength/Cogency Ans- Elements of an inductive argument Strength Ans- The premises give probable support for the conclusion. Cogent Ans- The premises give probable support towards the conclusion when true (Strength), and all premises are true Fallacy Ans- A defect in reasoning Formal Fallacy Ans- A defect in the structure of an argument Informal Fallacy Ans- A defect in the content of an argument Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) basic structure Ans- P1. If X, then Y P2. X C: Therefore, Y No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am in Rome. C: Therefore, I am in Italy Ans- Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) Affirming the Consequent basic structure Ans- P1. If X, then Y P2. Y C: Therefore, X Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I am in Rome, then I'm in Italy. P2. I am in Italy. C: Therefore, I am in Rome Ans- Affirming the Consequent Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) basic structure Ans- P1. If X, then Y P2. Not Y C: Therefore, not X No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Italy C: Therefore, I am not in Rome Ans- Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) Denying the Antecedent basic structure Ans- P1. If X, then Y P2. Not X C: Therefore, not Y Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Rome C: Therefore, I am not in Italy Ans- Denying the Antecedent Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning Ans- An argument where the premise restates the conclusion instead of supporting it. Arguing in a circle. P1. The Earth is ball-shaped C: Therefore, the Earth is a sphere Ans- Begging the Question (Informal Fallacy) The Fallacy Fallacy Ans- Occurs when the fact that a fallacy has been committed is used to justify rejecting someone's conclusion. They have committed the fallacy of begging the question, therefore we should reject their conclusion. Ans- The Fallacy Fallacy Bias Ans- Supporting a particular conclusion regardless of the evidence The Principle of Charity Ans- Interpreting a speaker's reasoning in the best possible light. This makes their position as strong and defensible as possible. Shae said, "It seems that the Earth is flat." Shae must mean that the Earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet is really round. Ans- The Principle of Charity Confirmation Bias Ans- The tendency to focus on evidence that confirms what an individual already believes, and to ignore evidence to the contrary. Cognitive Bias Ans- The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Alief Ans- An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned out beliefs. Heuristic Ans- a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy that doesn't work all of the time, but one that gets us where we need to go most of the time. _______ can become issues when we want to engage in good reasoning, fair-mindedness, or intellectual virtue. Ans- Heuristics The Representative Heuristic Ans- a mental Heuristic whereby people try to understand/judge a situation by means of situations in memories that bear similarities to it Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic Ans- When someone clusters their guesses around a given anchor The Anchoring Bias Ans- a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information The Availability Heuristic Ans- When one makes a judgment regarding a new situation using only information that is readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation. Algorithm Bubble Ans- The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. A true random sample Ans- The way individuals were put into the sample was done using random methods that were not biased in favor of any particular subgroup. A true representative sample Ans- Individuals in the sample are varied enough to give a good idea of all beliefs and ideas. Statistics can be __________ very easily. Ans- manipulated Selection bias Ans- This bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage