, Biological and Cognitive Psychology 222
Week 1 31.10: Introduction (Cog. & Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 1
Cognitive Psychology: 1 & 2
02.11: Structure and Functions of Cells in the Nervous Physiology of Behavior: 2
System (Bio.)
Week 2 07.11: Neurotransmission and Psychopharmacology Physiology of Behavior: 2 & 4
(Bio.)
09.11: Structure of the Nervous System (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 3
Week 3 14.11: Vision (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 3
16.11: Vision (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 6
Week 4 21.11: Attention (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 4
23.11: Movement (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 8
Week 5 28.11: Working Memory & Visual Imagery (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 5 & 10
30.11: Sleep (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 9
Week 6 05.12: Long Term Memory I (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 6 & 7
07.12: Learning and Memory (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 13
Week 7 12.12: Long Term Memory II (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 8 & 9
14.12: Q&A
Week 8 23.12: Midterm Exam Part 1
Week 9 09.01: Problem Solving (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 12
11.01: Emotion/Stress (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 11 & 17
Week 10 16.01: Human Communication (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 11
18.01: Human Communication (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 14
Week 11 23.01: Reasoning and Decision making (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 13
25.01: Q&A
Week 12 31.01: Final Exam (Part 1 & 2)
,introduction
READINGS
chapter ^
↳
Neurogenesis :
generation of new neurons
particularly in
specific regions of the adult brain
↳
Plasticity : when networks of brain cells change through growth and reorganisation forming new
connections and circuits
-
ultimate function of the nervous system is behavior + control of movement
Goals of Research
↳
Generalization which
:
explanations as
examples of general laws , are revealed
through experiments
↳ Reduction : terms
explanations of complex phenomena in of
simpler ones
set of mechanisms will control the movement if activated of the brain
by different
parts
-
same even
Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience
-
Ancient world
-
heart to be the seat of thought and emotions
Philosophy
-
↳ the dual nature
Dualism : belief in of reality which,
means that mind and body are separate
↳ Monism : belief that everything in the universe consists of matter and
energy and that the mind is a Phenomenon
produced by the workings of the nervous e system
↳ Reflexes : automatic reaktions do not require participation of mind
-
↳ Descartes 's Model : link between human mind and physical housing which is the brain ; mind controls
movements of the body body supplies mind with information ; interaction takes
place in Pineal body
Behavioral neuroscientists take empirical monistic approach
-
,
-
Physiology
-
Johannes Miller (1807-2858)
↳
experimentally removed / isolated animals
organs ,
tested their responses to chemicals , and
otherwise altering the environment to see how organs would respond
↳ Doctrine of specific basic
nerve
energies :
although all nerves
carry the same
message
(electrical impulse) we perceive messages of different
nerves in different ways
-
Anatomy
-
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
↳ animals
removed parts of observed their behavior
'
brains and
↳
Experimental Ablation :
observing what animals can no
longer do , after a brain
region was removed
the function of the
or
damaged ,
and
inferring missing part
-
Contemporary Research
new
techniques
-
↳ Cass
CRISPR -
: enables percise
editing of DNA ; enzyme Cass cuts out pieces of DNA paired with a
set of
replacement directions ( guide RNA)
↳
Epigenetics : focuses on roll of environment in the expression of genes
,Natural selection and Evolution
all of characteristics have functional significant's
organism's
-
an
structures inherited (brain) that behaviors
-
are cause
↳ Functionalism : that characteristics of living organisms perform useful functions
principle
Darwin s Theory which
adaptive characteristics
to
aimed
explain the by spices acquired their
-
means
↳ Natural selection : members of a
species were not all identical ; if an individual's characteristics
permit it to reproduce more successfully ,
some of the individual's
offspring will
inherit the favorable characteristics and will produce more
offspring →
specific
characteristics will then become prevelant that
more in
species
↳ Mutations: accidental
changes in the chromosomes of
sperm or
egg cells that
join together and
develop into a new
organism
Selective advantage beneficial mutations individuals then likely
→
: -
are more to live
,
long enough to reproduce
History
19th Century
-
1860 : Weber / Fechner's law
human
relating
↳
Psychophysics -
physical stimulus to how it effects a
-
1867 : Hermann von Helmholtz
↳ automatic
processes
↳ Nerve conduction
speed →
Physiological chronometry ( science of accurate time measures )
-
1868 : Fransiscus Cornelis Ponders
↳ Mental chronometry -
mental processes take time and this time can be measured through
Dondero 's subtraction Method
-
1879 : Wundt opened first psychology lab
1885
Ebbinghaus memory research
'
-
:
what is the time of forgetting?
↳
course
↳
savings curve :
memory drops rapidly for first two
days after the initial
learning and then levels off
1913 John B Watson
:
proposed behaviorism
-
.
↳
exclusively focused on behavior and learning
↳ stimulus -
Response psychology
( conditioned reflex")
↳ Dominant
paradigms classical conditioning
"
:
Operant conditioning ( reinforcement learning)
-
1948 : Edward Tolman
↳
experiment with rat
( turn right for food )
"
rat
"
→
does not learn a behavioral response
creates layout
"
the
"
-
☐
but a cognitive Map -
conception within the rat's mind of maze 's
,introduction
cognitive Psychology
specifically concerned with study of the mind
-
-
functional explanations ; process
models : stimulus →
processing by Mind → Reaction / behavior
Biological Psychology
study of
biological basis of the mind
-
Focus brain processes ; structural models
:
physical representations
-
on
Dondero subtraction Method
-
aims to estimate the duration of a mental process
-
Method
↳ create two identical tasks ✗ and not
one
involving one
-
↳ Measure reak.li on time in both tasks
↳ Subtract reaktion time , from Reaktion time ,
Example
-
go task
↳ GO / no & not the other
response only to color
-
one
-
RT task
↳
Simple always respond
-
↳ RT ( go / no ) -
RT (simple) = time needed to discriminate between colors
go
-
Problems :
depends assumptions about
stages and these being dependant
in
-
on
Behaviorism
-
focused on behavior and
learning only
-
Stimulus -
Response
Classical conditioning +
Operant conditioning
-
now been
changed to stimulus -
Organism (the mind)
-
Reaktion /Behavior
From Stimulus to Response in the Brain
Dorsal route
( where / how )
" "
Retina → Thalamus →
occipital lobe ☐ frontal lobe
±
☐
Premotor cortex
±
Ventral route primary motor cortex →
spinal chord
±
( what) effector ( limb /muscle)
"
, the Brain
studying
Double Dissociation : enables scientists to conclude that A and B served by
-
are
different mechanisms
↳
damage to one area of the brain causes function A to be absent while
function B is present
↳
damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A
is present
Brain imaging techniques
-
( electrode
{
↳
Electroencephalography (EEG) -
multiple electrodes cap) measure electrical
activity ; high temporal resolution (when something
direct
measurement
→ electrical activity
related to specific event happens) ; low spatial resolution (where in the brain the signals
coming from
are )
↳
Magnetoencephalography CMEG) measure
magnetic activity high temporal
-
-
,
resolution ;
high spatial resolution
allow scientists to derive Event related potentials (ERPs)
Indirect
↳
Positron emission
tomography CPET) -
tracks radioactive substance in blood
measurement
→ blood flow →
measures neural activity ,
via local blood
supply
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging FMRI) active brain regions attract blood
-
(need oxygen ) ;
high spatial resolution ; low temporal resolution oxygen reduction
↳
leads to change in magnetic properties
-
Temporal resolution :
showing when the activity occurs
-
Spatial resolution : showing where in the brain the activity is from
coming
Single cell
recordings : measures activation of few neurons in animals
patients
-
a or
under (
surgery highest spatial & temporal resolution)
Representation by Neurons
Specificity Coding : one neuron responsible for responding to specific object
-
one
↳ vulnerable + inefficient
→
Unlikely
Population Coding representation : of particular object by a pattern of firing
-
a
(Distributed coding) of a
large number of neurons → different patterns of same
↳ moreefficient
less vulnerable neurons in one
region
Sparse coding :
representation of
particular object by patterns of firing
-
a
of small number of
↳
more efficient a neurons
bit vulnerable
?⃝
,synchro and function of n e r ve cells
BIOLOGY
Bonding elements
↳ Ionic bond ( electrostatic force) : Plus attracts minus
↳ Covalent bond ( sharing of electrons forms molecules) : Elements want to have a full electron shell
☐
Hydrogen has 1 electron in the outer shell but wants a full outer shell (2)
,
electron hydrogen
{ each
hydrogen element gets one electron from
oxygen
-
Oxygen gets one from each
☐
Oxygen has 6 electrons in it 's outer shell and wants a full one (8)
Carbon chains
↳ Glucose (
Sugar) CGH v06
-
NHZ
Amino consists of
"
↳ Acid :
"
backbone Amino
"
group
-
it
,
µ
°
Acid / and a Rest which is
group Carboxyl group
-
c
, , µ c
different side chain for each amino acid
It
R
a ◦
↳ Protein : made up
of hundreds of Amino Acid backbones
↳
Peptides : short protein chains
°
Lipids
H
↳ fat ; chains
' H
long
H H
.
carbon
H c c c c a "
◦
H H
H H
Phospholipids
↳ fats bound with phosphate binds to water
↳ make
up the cell
membrane
at
water repellent
↳ carbon chains connected
by an extra
phosphate
(P)
group
Neuron
→
inside the Soma
1. Porous Neudeus allows mRNA
(
3
copies of DNA) to transport out into
•
the cytoplasm
2
2. Rough ER follows the mRNA to
produce
proteins (Neurotransmitters)
5
4
3.
Golgi Apparatus packs the proteins
into vesicles to be transported
4- Microtubules act as a road system for the transportation of the proteins
along the axon
5. Mitochondria ATP Adenosine Tri Phosphate
produces
-
-
6. Lysosomes process wast and break down unused Neurotransmitters so they can be repurposed
kinesin : transport proteins from cell body ( Soma) to terminal buttons
Dynein transport
: of unused Neurotransmitters from terminal buttons to
Soma (→ Lysomes break down Proteins to re-use them)
, Glial Cells (supportcells)
act as nerve
glue
-
↳
Microglia:serve as a
partofthe immune system, by
protecting the brain from bacteria;engulfand
break down dead/dying Neurons (process called Phagocytosis)
Le
Macroglia
↳
Astocytes:provide physical structure (glia-glue);form a
layer around
synaptic cleft so thatNews transmitters
↑breakdown GABAonlygo to intended postsynaptic neuron;are able to break
through the blood-brain-barrier
&Glutamate;Phagocytosis and
supply the brain with
glucose;clear away debries from dead cells
↳
Oligodendrocytes:provide support to axon;produce myelin sheath in CNS
& Schwann cells:
produce mylien sheath PNS;a schwann cell onlyprovide mylien
in
single can
sheath for one cell
Membrane potential (any change difference across Membrane)
↳ Diffusion:due to random motion, particles will from with concentration
move
regions high to
regions with lower concentration (particles spread out)
L Electrostatics:ions with the same *
charge repel eachother (cation-ocation;Anions Anio
ions with different charges attractone another (Cation* Enion)
↳ Permiability:some molecules are able to
go through the cell membrane
↳ Fon channels:allow cell membrane
ions to
pass through
↳
Voltage dependantIon
-
channels:are only opened changes
by in membrane potential
↳
Sodium-Potassium-Pump: exchange Natfor K; pump 3 Na*(sodium Ions) to outside of
cell and
CK*(potassium Ions) to inside of
cell;high consumption of
ATP
Outside e -I I I >
I I I I I I
-
Inside a -
to maD
Action Potential
is
threshold of-55mV is
if reached, then action potential is generated
1.
Depolarisation -
Na"channels
open and goes into the cell
Nat
189
making itmore positive (less negative)
2.1 "channels begin to
open-K "flows of
out cell;counteracts
electrical effect
ofNatinflow
=
3. Refractory period -
Natchannels close, no new AP can be
generated
4.
Repolarisation -
keeps flowing
K+ outofcell;inside becomes negative
5. K channels close, Natchannels return to able to be opened
being
6. potential
Hyperpolarisation -
membrane becomes more
negative
Relative Refractory and graduallyreturns to resting state
through
Period) NatK*-Pump;onlyverystrong stimulus AP
can generate new
Week 1 31.10: Introduction (Cog. & Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 1
Cognitive Psychology: 1 & 2
02.11: Structure and Functions of Cells in the Nervous Physiology of Behavior: 2
System (Bio.)
Week 2 07.11: Neurotransmission and Psychopharmacology Physiology of Behavior: 2 & 4
(Bio.)
09.11: Structure of the Nervous System (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 3
Week 3 14.11: Vision (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 3
16.11: Vision (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 6
Week 4 21.11: Attention (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 4
23.11: Movement (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 8
Week 5 28.11: Working Memory & Visual Imagery (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 5 & 10
30.11: Sleep (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 9
Week 6 05.12: Long Term Memory I (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 6 & 7
07.12: Learning and Memory (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 13
Week 7 12.12: Long Term Memory II (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 8 & 9
14.12: Q&A
Week 8 23.12: Midterm Exam Part 1
Week 9 09.01: Problem Solving (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 12
11.01: Emotion/Stress (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 11 & 17
Week 10 16.01: Human Communication (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 11
18.01: Human Communication (Bio.) Physiology of Behavior: 14
Week 11 23.01: Reasoning and Decision making (Cog.) Cognitive Psychology: 13
25.01: Q&A
Week 12 31.01: Final Exam (Part 1 & 2)
,introduction
READINGS
chapter ^
↳
Neurogenesis :
generation of new neurons
particularly in
specific regions of the adult brain
↳
Plasticity : when networks of brain cells change through growth and reorganisation forming new
connections and circuits
-
ultimate function of the nervous system is behavior + control of movement
Goals of Research
↳
Generalization which
:
explanations as
examples of general laws , are revealed
through experiments
↳ Reduction : terms
explanations of complex phenomena in of
simpler ones
set of mechanisms will control the movement if activated of the brain
by different
parts
-
same even
Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience
-
Ancient world
-
heart to be the seat of thought and emotions
Philosophy
-
↳ the dual nature
Dualism : belief in of reality which,
means that mind and body are separate
↳ Monism : belief that everything in the universe consists of matter and
energy and that the mind is a Phenomenon
produced by the workings of the nervous e system
↳ Reflexes : automatic reaktions do not require participation of mind
-
↳ Descartes 's Model : link between human mind and physical housing which is the brain ; mind controls
movements of the body body supplies mind with information ; interaction takes
place in Pineal body
Behavioral neuroscientists take empirical monistic approach
-
,
-
Physiology
-
Johannes Miller (1807-2858)
↳
experimentally removed / isolated animals
organs ,
tested their responses to chemicals , and
otherwise altering the environment to see how organs would respond
↳ Doctrine of specific basic
nerve
energies :
although all nerves
carry the same
message
(electrical impulse) we perceive messages of different
nerves in different ways
-
Anatomy
-
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
↳ animals
removed parts of observed their behavior
'
brains and
↳
Experimental Ablation :
observing what animals can no
longer do , after a brain
region was removed
the function of the
or
damaged ,
and
inferring missing part
-
Contemporary Research
new
techniques
-
↳ Cass
CRISPR -
: enables percise
editing of DNA ; enzyme Cass cuts out pieces of DNA paired with a
set of
replacement directions ( guide RNA)
↳
Epigenetics : focuses on roll of environment in the expression of genes
,Natural selection and Evolution
all of characteristics have functional significant's
organism's
-
an
structures inherited (brain) that behaviors
-
are cause
↳ Functionalism : that characteristics of living organisms perform useful functions
principle
Darwin s Theory which
adaptive characteristics
to
aimed
explain the by spices acquired their
-
means
↳ Natural selection : members of a
species were not all identical ; if an individual's characteristics
permit it to reproduce more successfully ,
some of the individual's
offspring will
inherit the favorable characteristics and will produce more
offspring →
specific
characteristics will then become prevelant that
more in
species
↳ Mutations: accidental
changes in the chromosomes of
sperm or
egg cells that
join together and
develop into a new
organism
Selective advantage beneficial mutations individuals then likely
→
: -
are more to live
,
long enough to reproduce
History
19th Century
-
1860 : Weber / Fechner's law
human
relating
↳
Psychophysics -
physical stimulus to how it effects a
-
1867 : Hermann von Helmholtz
↳ automatic
processes
↳ Nerve conduction
speed →
Physiological chronometry ( science of accurate time measures )
-
1868 : Fransiscus Cornelis Ponders
↳ Mental chronometry -
mental processes take time and this time can be measured through
Dondero 's subtraction Method
-
1879 : Wundt opened first psychology lab
1885
Ebbinghaus memory research
'
-
:
what is the time of forgetting?
↳
course
↳
savings curve :
memory drops rapidly for first two
days after the initial
learning and then levels off
1913 John B Watson
:
proposed behaviorism
-
.
↳
exclusively focused on behavior and learning
↳ stimulus -
Response psychology
( conditioned reflex")
↳ Dominant
paradigms classical conditioning
"
:
Operant conditioning ( reinforcement learning)
-
1948 : Edward Tolman
↳
experiment with rat
( turn right for food )
"
rat
"
→
does not learn a behavioral response
creates layout
"
the
"
-
☐
but a cognitive Map -
conception within the rat's mind of maze 's
,introduction
cognitive Psychology
specifically concerned with study of the mind
-
-
functional explanations ; process
models : stimulus →
processing by Mind → Reaction / behavior
Biological Psychology
study of
biological basis of the mind
-
Focus brain processes ; structural models
:
physical representations
-
on
Dondero subtraction Method
-
aims to estimate the duration of a mental process
-
Method
↳ create two identical tasks ✗ and not
one
involving one
-
↳ Measure reak.li on time in both tasks
↳ Subtract reaktion time , from Reaktion time ,
Example
-
go task
↳ GO / no & not the other
response only to color
-
one
-
RT task
↳
Simple always respond
-
↳ RT ( go / no ) -
RT (simple) = time needed to discriminate between colors
go
-
Problems :
depends assumptions about
stages and these being dependant
in
-
on
Behaviorism
-
focused on behavior and
learning only
-
Stimulus -
Response
Classical conditioning +
Operant conditioning
-
now been
changed to stimulus -
Organism (the mind)
-
Reaktion /Behavior
From Stimulus to Response in the Brain
Dorsal route
( where / how )
" "
Retina → Thalamus →
occipital lobe ☐ frontal lobe
±
☐
Premotor cortex
±
Ventral route primary motor cortex →
spinal chord
±
( what) effector ( limb /muscle)
"
, the Brain
studying
Double Dissociation : enables scientists to conclude that A and B served by
-
are
different mechanisms
↳
damage to one area of the brain causes function A to be absent while
function B is present
↳
damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A
is present
Brain imaging techniques
-
( electrode
{
↳
Electroencephalography (EEG) -
multiple electrodes cap) measure electrical
activity ; high temporal resolution (when something
direct
measurement
→ electrical activity
related to specific event happens) ; low spatial resolution (where in the brain the signals
coming from
are )
↳
Magnetoencephalography CMEG) measure
magnetic activity high temporal
-
-
,
resolution ;
high spatial resolution
allow scientists to derive Event related potentials (ERPs)
Indirect
↳
Positron emission
tomography CPET) -
tracks radioactive substance in blood
measurement
→ blood flow →
measures neural activity ,
via local blood
supply
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging FMRI) active brain regions attract blood
-
(need oxygen ) ;
high spatial resolution ; low temporal resolution oxygen reduction
↳
leads to change in magnetic properties
-
Temporal resolution :
showing when the activity occurs
-
Spatial resolution : showing where in the brain the activity is from
coming
Single cell
recordings : measures activation of few neurons in animals
patients
-
a or
under (
surgery highest spatial & temporal resolution)
Representation by Neurons
Specificity Coding : one neuron responsible for responding to specific object
-
one
↳ vulnerable + inefficient
→
Unlikely
Population Coding representation : of particular object by a pattern of firing
-
a
(Distributed coding) of a
large number of neurons → different patterns of same
↳ moreefficient
less vulnerable neurons in one
region
Sparse coding :
representation of
particular object by patterns of firing
-
a
of small number of
↳
more efficient a neurons
bit vulnerable
?⃝
,synchro and function of n e r ve cells
BIOLOGY
Bonding elements
↳ Ionic bond ( electrostatic force) : Plus attracts minus
↳ Covalent bond ( sharing of electrons forms molecules) : Elements want to have a full electron shell
☐
Hydrogen has 1 electron in the outer shell but wants a full outer shell (2)
,
electron hydrogen
{ each
hydrogen element gets one electron from
oxygen
-
Oxygen gets one from each
☐
Oxygen has 6 electrons in it 's outer shell and wants a full one (8)
Carbon chains
↳ Glucose (
Sugar) CGH v06
-
NHZ
Amino consists of
"
↳ Acid :
"
backbone Amino
"
group
-
it
,
µ
°
Acid / and a Rest which is
group Carboxyl group
-
c
, , µ c
different side chain for each amino acid
It
R
a ◦
↳ Protein : made up
of hundreds of Amino Acid backbones
↳
Peptides : short protein chains
°
Lipids
H
↳ fat ; chains
' H
long
H H
.
carbon
H c c c c a "
◦
H H
H H
Phospholipids
↳ fats bound with phosphate binds to water
↳ make
up the cell
membrane
at
water repellent
↳ carbon chains connected
by an extra
phosphate
(P)
group
Neuron
→
inside the Soma
1. Porous Neudeus allows mRNA
(
3
copies of DNA) to transport out into
•
the cytoplasm
2
2. Rough ER follows the mRNA to
produce
proteins (Neurotransmitters)
5
4
3.
Golgi Apparatus packs the proteins
into vesicles to be transported
4- Microtubules act as a road system for the transportation of the proteins
along the axon
5. Mitochondria ATP Adenosine Tri Phosphate
produces
-
-
6. Lysosomes process wast and break down unused Neurotransmitters so they can be repurposed
kinesin : transport proteins from cell body ( Soma) to terminal buttons
Dynein transport
: of unused Neurotransmitters from terminal buttons to
Soma (→ Lysomes break down Proteins to re-use them)
, Glial Cells (supportcells)
act as nerve
glue
-
↳
Microglia:serve as a
partofthe immune system, by
protecting the brain from bacteria;engulfand
break down dead/dying Neurons (process called Phagocytosis)
Le
Macroglia
↳
Astocytes:provide physical structure (glia-glue);form a
layer around
synaptic cleft so thatNews transmitters
↑breakdown GABAonlygo to intended postsynaptic neuron;are able to break
through the blood-brain-barrier
&Glutamate;Phagocytosis and
supply the brain with
glucose;clear away debries from dead cells
↳
Oligodendrocytes:provide support to axon;produce myelin sheath in CNS
& Schwann cells:
produce mylien sheath PNS;a schwann cell onlyprovide mylien
in
single can
sheath for one cell
Membrane potential (any change difference across Membrane)
↳ Diffusion:due to random motion, particles will from with concentration
move
regions high to
regions with lower concentration (particles spread out)
L Electrostatics:ions with the same *
charge repel eachother (cation-ocation;Anions Anio
ions with different charges attractone another (Cation* Enion)
↳ Permiability:some molecules are able to
go through the cell membrane
↳ Fon channels:allow cell membrane
ions to
pass through
↳
Voltage dependantIon
-
channels:are only opened changes
by in membrane potential
↳
Sodium-Potassium-Pump: exchange Natfor K; pump 3 Na*(sodium Ions) to outside of
cell and
CK*(potassium Ions) to inside of
cell;high consumption of
ATP
Outside e -I I I >
I I I I I I
-
Inside a -
to maD
Action Potential
is
threshold of-55mV is
if reached, then action potential is generated
1.
Depolarisation -
Na"channels
open and goes into the cell
Nat
189
making itmore positive (less negative)
2.1 "channels begin to
open-K "flows of
out cell;counteracts
electrical effect
ofNatinflow
=
3. Refractory period -
Natchannels close, no new AP can be
generated
4.
Repolarisation -
keeps flowing
K+ outofcell;inside becomes negative
5. K channels close, Natchannels return to able to be opened
being
6. potential
Hyperpolarisation -
membrane becomes more
negative
Relative Refractory and graduallyreturns to resting state
through
Period) NatK*-Pump;onlyverystrong stimulus AP
can generate new
