ONS/ONCC Chemotherapy Immunotherapy Certificate Exam With 100% Correct Answers 2023

Lesson 1: Foundations to Set the Stage - Correct answerFocusing on Cellular Structure and Function - Correct answerThe Normal Cell Cycle - Correct answer--The cell cycle refers to the ordered seres of processes of DNA replication and mitosis, or cell division -Cell nucleus regulates these processes by gathering and processing complexes molecular information Interphase and Mitotic Phase - Correct answer-Cell division produces two identical cells through these two major phases During interphase: - Correct answer-Cell grows and DNA is replicated through the following three steps: 1: First growth phase (G1 or first gap) 2: Synthesis phase (S phase) 3:Mitotic Phse (M phase) First Growth Phase (G1 or first gap) - Correct answer--cells increase in size -reproduce RNA -"quality assurance" test that the cell will be ready to synthesis DNA -Length of time is variable, can be from hours to days Synthesis Phase (S phase) - Correct answer--DNA replicates -Results in the formation of identical pairs of DNA (chromatids) -which are attached a t the centromere -lasts 2-10 hours Mitotic Phase (M phase) - Correct answer--Replicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and move into 2 new, identical daughter cells -takes about 30-60 minutes Major points of cell regulation are entry and exit from - Correct answer--G1 checkpoint -S Phase -G2 checkpoint -M phase Restriction Point - Correct answer--The transition from the resting phase into an actively dividing phase (G0-G1) is a point where cellular transformation can occur -During this time, cells pass through a transition phase known as a restriction point -Extracellular growth factors trigger reentry into G1, and GF are required to send the cells past the restriction point, or the point of no return G0 Phase (resting phase) - Correct answer--After mitosis, cells may enter back into the G1 phase or go into a resting phase, known as G0 -Most cells in the human body reside in G0 -Exceptions to this are those that are (Resting in G0 phase) - Correct answer-- Exceptions to this are those that are metabollically active, such as -granulocytes -and the epithelium of the GI tract Cell Cycling Time - Correct answer-Amount of time from mitosis to mitosis Cell cycle video and image - Correct answer _how_the_cell_cycle_ Check points in the Cell Cycle: Keeping it All Under Control - Correct answer--The cell cycle is carefully controlled through a series of checkpoints -Variation in duplication or distribution of chromosomes during cell division can alter the genetic information passed on to daughter cells, leading to cellular dysfunction and disease, such as cancer -These checkpoints monitor for DNA integrity and control progression through mitosis Progression through the cell cycle is controlled through two proteins: - Correct answer1. cyclines (D, E, A, B) 2. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) -Cyclin-CDK complex allows the cell to progress through each phase of the cell cycle Locations of proteins Cyclins (D, E, A, B) and CDKs - Correct answer--(G0-G1) : Cyclin D and CDK 4/6 -Early S: Cyclin E and CDK 1/2 -Late S: Cyclin A and CDK 1/2 -G2: CDK 1/2 and cyclin A -Before M: CDK 1 and Cyclin B Inhibitory proteins - Correct answer--prevent progression of the cycle when DNA damage is detected -An example of an inhibitory protein is p53 (AKA TP53) DNA Damage Checkpoints - Correct answer--If DNA damage is present, cells are programmed to stop dividing or undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) -The retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53, and p21 are some of the most well-understood inhibitory proteins (IP) Inhibitory proteins p53 - Correct answer--Levels of this IP regulate several important target genes -Will increase when DNA damage is present -Protects against inappropriate signal proliferation -sometimes called the "suicide gene" M Phase Checkpoints - Correct answer-When the cells prepare to divide, the chromosomes line up in the mitotic spindle. If the chromosomes are not properly aligned, division is not allowed to continue Immunity - Correct answer- Cells of the Immune System - Correct answerPluripotent Stem Cell - Correct answer--The cells of the immune system are created in the bome marrow from what is know as a ___ -A stem cell that can differentiate into any cell type except for extraembryotic tissue, does not yet have a function Myeolid Precursor Cells - Correct answer-Mature into: -RBCS -Plts -WBCs (Granulocytes) Lymphoid Precursor Cells - Correct answer-Mature into: -Specialized WBCs called lymphocytes (Agranulocytes) Lines of Defense: The Immune System's Response to Attack - Correct answer-Consists of 2 types of immunity: 1: Innate 2: Adaptive Innate Immunity - Correct answer--First line of defense against a pathogen -Does not retain memory of the entity -Involves the following: (skin, mucous membranes, and normal flora of the skin and gut) (Cellular components such as phagocytes, natural killer cells, granulocytes, and macrophages) 1. Phagocytes 2. Natural Killer Cells 3. Granulocytes 4. Macrophages - Correct answer-1.Cells that engulf and destroy invader 2. Cells that sense receptors on self and non-self to determine if they should kill or not 3. Type of WBC that have granules (Neutrophils Eosinophils - parasites Basophils - release histamine to stimulate immune response) 4. Large phagocytic cells stimulated by infection Adaptive Immunity - Correct answer--Stimulated if innate immunity is insufficient -leads to immune system memory -Humoral immunity -Cell-mediated immunity -Regulatory T-cells Humoral Immunity - Correct answer--B-Cells -Memory B-Cells -Plasma act to produce immunoglobulins (Igs) or antibodies B-Cell - Correct answer--each one is programmed to make one specific antibody -Can recognize antigens whether they are freely circulating in the blood or attached to surface of a microbe -When dividing, can become plasma cells which will then begin secreting antibodies that are unique to that antigen Plasma Cells - Correct answer--some plasma cells will undergo apoptosis -Some will go to the BM where they will continue to secrete antibodies sometimes for years Cell-Mediated Immunity - Correct answer-Depends upon cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells and their cyokinds -more effective against antigens within cells Regulatory T-cells AKA suppressor T-Cells - Correct answer-regulate the immune response to prevent autoimmune reactions and limit inflammatory responses T-Cell - Correct answer--Can only recognize antigens when they are presented to them by "presenting cells" -Recognize phagocytized fragments of an antigen that are put on the surface of antigenpresenting cells Helper T-Cells (CD4+) - Correct answer--help other T-Cells by secreting chemicals -Help B Cells to respond -rapidly divide, in an effort to stay ahead of the antigen dividsion -some will turn into effector cells, which secrete different kinds of cytokines -respond similarly to B-Cells Cytotoxic T-Cells (CD8+) - Correct answer--Directly kill cells for which they are activated to kill -rapidly divide, become mature cells, and start killing antigens Cytokines - Correct answer--Secreted by lymphocytes -Tasked with eliminating the antigen -Multifunctional subsances having proinflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and regulatory functions in the immune system Cytokines Include.. - Correct answer--Interferons (IFNs) -Tumor necrosis factors -Transforming GFs -Interleukins (IL -1, -2, -3, -4, -6, -8, -10, and -15) -These cytokines regulate antibody production and the functions of B and T cells as well as interact with antigen-presenting cells and NKCs Benign Tumors - Correct answer--encapsulated and grow in an orderly manner with smooth edges -Do not invade neighboring tissue -DO not metastasize to distant sites -the cells well differentiated in that they look like the parent cell Characteristics of Cancer Cells - Correct answer--Malignant tumors are not encapsulated -Cell structure is different from parent tissue (no as well differentiated) -Cell division is uncontrolled -Cells are loosely adherent without contact inhibition -Cells are able to invade neighboring tissue -Cells can migrate and metastasize to distant sites -Can stimulate the development of new blood vessels to supply the tumor (angiogenesis) Proto-oncogene - Correct answer--regulate normal cell growth and division -large family of genes that code for proteins and enzymes that turn on the cell cyle Oncogene - Correct answer-when mistakes in copies of DNA can occur, if a mutation occurs next to a proto-oncogene, it can "turn on" and become a ______ Examples of oncogoenes - Correct answer-1. EGFR or Erb-B1 (codes for an epidermal GF receptor in the receptor-tyrosine kinase family ad is associated with head and neck and colorectal cancers) -EGFR inhibitor therapies are known to cause cutaneous reactions 2. Erb-B2 or HER2/neu (codes for an EGFR protein in the tyrosine kinase family and is associated with some breast cancers) Tumor suppressor genes - Correct answer--act like brakes in a car, slowing down or stopping cell growth and division -in the presence of malignancies, they bind to DNA with intention of repairing or activating apoptosis -for it to be turned on it must be expressed or "opened" in the DNA helix so that it can be transcribed or copied p53 - Correct answer--"sucidie gene" -activates apoptosis when the cell is damaged beyond repair or too old to function -more than 50% of solid tumors, the gene is mutated and unable to perform its normal function Growth Signals - Correct answer--cancer cells are able to find their own growth signals making them self-sufficient Signal transduction - Correct answer--the communication or passage of a message telling the cell to do a biologic process, such as make a protein, divide, or make new blood vessels