Summary of *SOME* of the material for the final exam (2022) for Research Methods in Political
Science. INCLUDES notes from (Total: 26 pages):
● Sandra Halperin and Oliver Heath’s book (3rd edition, 2020) “Political Research Methods and
Practical Skills”, chapters 1-7.
● Sandra Mathison’s article (1988) “Why Triangulate?”, pp. 13-17.
● Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani and I-Chant A’s book (2nd edition, 2015) “Research Methods in
Psychology”, pp. 96-102.
1
Research Methods in Political Science Notes on *SOME* Readings
Table of Contents
“Political Research Methods and Practical Skills” 2
Chapter 1: Political Research 2
Part 1 - Philosophy of Social Science: Knowledge and Knowing in Social Science Research 4
Chapter 2: Forms of Knowledge: Laws, Explanation and Interpretation in the Study of the
Social World 4
Chapter 3: Political Research 9
Part 2 - How to Do Research: An Overview 11
Chapter 4: Asking Questions - How to Find and Formulate Research Questions 11
Chapter 5: Finding Answers - Theories and How to Apply Them 15
Chapter 6: Research Design 18
Chapter 7: What is data? 22
“Why Triangulate?” 25
“Research Methods in Psychology” 26
, 2
“Political Research Methods and Practical Skills”
Chapter 1: Political Research
Research methods are enabling = how to make arguments illustrated with examples + embedded in
normal reasoning.
➔ Investigates an argument, building on others’ work to expand on new insights.
➔ 3 basic positions:
1. Encourage pluralism in methodological approaches to political research.
2. Research should be problem-driven.
3. Research should have relevance to important political questions.
Significant Question: Directly relevant to solving real-world problems + furthering the goals of
specific literature.
➔ NO agreement on what constitutes a meaningful/plausible answer (politics is so diverse).
➔ Tendency to define empirical issues = ‘real world’ and normative issues = ‘ideas + values’.
Tendency to treat Politics and International Relations (IR) as separate fields.
➔ HOWEVER, NOT productive to treat domestic/international processes as analytically distinct.
➔ Political processes operate across levels/at multiple scales of analysis.
Sharp distinction between ‘empirical’ + ‘normative’ research.
➔ Empirical Research: Addresses events/political phenomena observed in the real world (what
is), based on first-hand gathering of data.
➔ Normative Research: Addresses questions about what should (ought to be).
Good social science = empirically grounded + relevant to human concerns.
➔ Must be clear about the difference between normative/empirical questions + statements.
➔ They are NOT independent of each other (e.g. theory of deliberative democracy).
Theory + evidence inform each other.
Epistemology: Concerned with understanding/explaining how we know what we know.
➔ Grand traditions in social science epistemology:
1. Positivism: Scientific method may be applied to the study of social life, knowledge is
only generated through observation (empiricism), facts/values are distinct (objective
inquiry = possible).
2. Interpretivism: Knowledge of the social world can be gained through interpreting the
meanings which give people reasons for acting (understand human behaviour, NOT
explain/predict it).
3. Scientific Realism: Reality consists of observable + unobservable elements.
➔ All have different ontological (nature of the social world) + epistemological (how we can
know of it) commitments.
The method you use in conducting research will always depend on the answers to the questions:
, 3
1. What RQs are you trying to answer?
2. What evidence or data do you need to answer the question?
3. How are you going to analyse the data, + what are the practical steps needed to
obtain/record them?
Scientific Method: The testing of hypotheses derived from pre-existing theories.
Search for a unified set of standards (substantively the same, differing only in the type of techniques
employed):
● Quantitative Research: Based on a statistical analysis of carefully coded information for many
cases/observations (good for making generalisations + consider different factors, BUT hard to
investigate hard-to-define concepts).
● Qualitative Research: Based on a discursive textual analysis of more loosely coded
information for just a few cases (good for reaching hard-to-define concepts + hard-to-reach
populations, BUT hard to go into detail + more costly resources).
Different methodological positions are NOT tied to any epistemological/ontological position.
NO method is better than another, BUT only better/less suited to addressing the specific RQ.
3 components of the research process:
1. Philosophy of Social Science: Knowledge and Knowing in Social Science Research
● Methodology = conduct of inquiry (ontology/epistemology = core part of this reflection).
● Philosophy of social science debates has implications for all areas of research.
● Understanding the terms/implications of major debates is important for good research. 2
key controversies in the philosophy of social science:
1. How we can know/develop knowledge about the social world.
➔ Questions about what sort of knowledge we can gain about the social world.
➔ 3 different approaches to answering these questions = positivism,
interpretivism, scientific realism.
2. Whether it is possible to separate facts/values in social science research.
2. How to do Research: An Overview
● Research Process: A set of components that often does NOT unfold linearly.
● Steps involving developing a plan for pursuing research on a topic:
1. Developing a RQ + locating applicable theory/literature. Basic requirements:
■ Answers need to be appropriate to the type of questions (descriptive,
explanatory, normative questions).
■ Needs to contribute to knowledge.
■ Must be clearly/fully specified.
2. Formulating testable ‘working’ hypotheses.
➔ Should be empirically/logically verifiable = falsifiable with evidence.
➔ Hypotheses can be:
◆ Confirmatory Research: Tested with evidence (questions = more
concrete).
Science. INCLUDES notes from (Total: 26 pages):
● Sandra Halperin and Oliver Heath’s book (3rd edition, 2020) “Political Research Methods and
Practical Skills”, chapters 1-7.
● Sandra Mathison’s article (1988) “Why Triangulate?”, pp. 13-17.
● Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani and I-Chant A’s book (2nd edition, 2015) “Research Methods in
Psychology”, pp. 96-102.
1
Research Methods in Political Science Notes on *SOME* Readings
Table of Contents
“Political Research Methods and Practical Skills” 2
Chapter 1: Political Research 2
Part 1 - Philosophy of Social Science: Knowledge and Knowing in Social Science Research 4
Chapter 2: Forms of Knowledge: Laws, Explanation and Interpretation in the Study of the
Social World 4
Chapter 3: Political Research 9
Part 2 - How to Do Research: An Overview 11
Chapter 4: Asking Questions - How to Find and Formulate Research Questions 11
Chapter 5: Finding Answers - Theories and How to Apply Them 15
Chapter 6: Research Design 18
Chapter 7: What is data? 22
“Why Triangulate?” 25
“Research Methods in Psychology” 26
, 2
“Political Research Methods and Practical Skills”
Chapter 1: Political Research
Research methods are enabling = how to make arguments illustrated with examples + embedded in
normal reasoning.
➔ Investigates an argument, building on others’ work to expand on new insights.
➔ 3 basic positions:
1. Encourage pluralism in methodological approaches to political research.
2. Research should be problem-driven.
3. Research should have relevance to important political questions.
Significant Question: Directly relevant to solving real-world problems + furthering the goals of
specific literature.
➔ NO agreement on what constitutes a meaningful/plausible answer (politics is so diverse).
➔ Tendency to define empirical issues = ‘real world’ and normative issues = ‘ideas + values’.
Tendency to treat Politics and International Relations (IR) as separate fields.
➔ HOWEVER, NOT productive to treat domestic/international processes as analytically distinct.
➔ Political processes operate across levels/at multiple scales of analysis.
Sharp distinction between ‘empirical’ + ‘normative’ research.
➔ Empirical Research: Addresses events/political phenomena observed in the real world (what
is), based on first-hand gathering of data.
➔ Normative Research: Addresses questions about what should (ought to be).
Good social science = empirically grounded + relevant to human concerns.
➔ Must be clear about the difference between normative/empirical questions + statements.
➔ They are NOT independent of each other (e.g. theory of deliberative democracy).
Theory + evidence inform each other.
Epistemology: Concerned with understanding/explaining how we know what we know.
➔ Grand traditions in social science epistemology:
1. Positivism: Scientific method may be applied to the study of social life, knowledge is
only generated through observation (empiricism), facts/values are distinct (objective
inquiry = possible).
2. Interpretivism: Knowledge of the social world can be gained through interpreting the
meanings which give people reasons for acting (understand human behaviour, NOT
explain/predict it).
3. Scientific Realism: Reality consists of observable + unobservable elements.
➔ All have different ontological (nature of the social world) + epistemological (how we can
know of it) commitments.
The method you use in conducting research will always depend on the answers to the questions:
, 3
1. What RQs are you trying to answer?
2. What evidence or data do you need to answer the question?
3. How are you going to analyse the data, + what are the practical steps needed to
obtain/record them?
Scientific Method: The testing of hypotheses derived from pre-existing theories.
Search for a unified set of standards (substantively the same, differing only in the type of techniques
employed):
● Quantitative Research: Based on a statistical analysis of carefully coded information for many
cases/observations (good for making generalisations + consider different factors, BUT hard to
investigate hard-to-define concepts).
● Qualitative Research: Based on a discursive textual analysis of more loosely coded
information for just a few cases (good for reaching hard-to-define concepts + hard-to-reach
populations, BUT hard to go into detail + more costly resources).
Different methodological positions are NOT tied to any epistemological/ontological position.
NO method is better than another, BUT only better/less suited to addressing the specific RQ.
3 components of the research process:
1. Philosophy of Social Science: Knowledge and Knowing in Social Science Research
● Methodology = conduct of inquiry (ontology/epistemology = core part of this reflection).
● Philosophy of social science debates has implications for all areas of research.
● Understanding the terms/implications of major debates is important for good research. 2
key controversies in the philosophy of social science:
1. How we can know/develop knowledge about the social world.
➔ Questions about what sort of knowledge we can gain about the social world.
➔ 3 different approaches to answering these questions = positivism,
interpretivism, scientific realism.
2. Whether it is possible to separate facts/values in social science research.
2. How to do Research: An Overview
● Research Process: A set of components that often does NOT unfold linearly.
● Steps involving developing a plan for pursuing research on a topic:
1. Developing a RQ + locating applicable theory/literature. Basic requirements:
■ Answers need to be appropriate to the type of questions (descriptive,
explanatory, normative questions).
■ Needs to contribute to knowledge.
■ Must be clearly/fully specified.
2. Formulating testable ‘working’ hypotheses.
➔ Should be empirically/logically verifiable = falsifiable with evidence.
➔ Hypotheses can be:
◆ Confirmatory Research: Tested with evidence (questions = more
concrete).
