Patho Nr283-Exam 1 Study Guide 2022

PATHO NR283-EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE 2022 Chapter 1 Atrophy: ▪ Decrease in the size of cells ▪ Results in reduced tissue mass ▪ Common causes: reduced use of the tissue (in cast), insufficient nutrition, decrease neurologic or hormonal stimulation, aging Hypertrophy: ▪ Increase in cell size ▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass; ex) enlarged heart w/ heart failure ▪ Causes: additional work by the tissue( lifting weights), excessive hormonal stimulation Hyperplasia: ▪ Increased number of cells ▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass ex) uterus in pregnancy ▪ Causes: compensatory mechanism to meet increased demand, or pathologic when there is a hormonal imbalance Metaplasia: ▪ Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type ▪ Adaptive mechanism that provided more resistance tissue Dysplasia: ▪ Cells vary in size and shape within a tissue ▪ Chronic irritation infection, or it may be a precancerous change Anaplasia: ▪ Undifferentiated cells with variable nuclear and cell structures ▪ Characteristic of cancer Neoplasia: ▪ New growth ▪ Commonly called tumor Causes of cell death: 1. Ischemia: Most common cause of cell death; Decreased supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue or organ due to circulation obstruction 2. Hypoxia: Reduced oxygen in tissues/blood; Result insufficient oxygen and reduced cellular metabolism 3. Physical damage: extreme heat/ cold 4. Mechanical damage: pressure, tumor, obstruction 5. Chemical toxins: exogenous-pollution endogenous-free radicals 6. Microorganisms/pathogens -bacteria/viruses Stages 1. Initial: start; loss of function; reversible 2. Irreversible: Cell death Aptosis: ▪ Normal; refers to programmed cell death Necrosis: ▪ Group of cells die due to cell injury Gangrene: ▪ Area of necrotic tissue that has been invaded by bacteria Chapter 20 Differentiation: ▪ Each cell type differentiates/matures and carries out specific functions ▪ The structure reflects the function of the tissue Benign: ▪ Have tissue name plus the suffix –oma ▪ Differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher rate but still normal; slower growth; ▪ Do NOT spread ▪ Localized ▪ Encapsulated ▪ Tissue damage to adjacent cells from pressure ▪ Rare systemic manifestations Malignant: ▪ Have the tissue name plus the suffix –carcinoma ▪ Sarcomas: tumor of the connective tissue... Often malignant ▪ Undifferentiated, nonfunctional cells ▪ Rapid reproduction ▪ Infiltrate and spread to surrounding tissue ▪ No Capsule ▪ Spread to different sites ▪ Normal cell destruction ▪ Systemic manifestation present Cancer risk factors: 1. Environment 2. Genetics 3. Infections 4. Chemicals/toxins 5. Biological factors 6. Age 7. Diet 8. Hormones (^ estrogen levels= breast cancer) 1. Unusual bleeding or discharge anywhere in the body 2. Change in bowel or bladder habits 3. Change in wart or mole 4. A sore that does not heal 5. Unexplained weight loss 6. Anemia, low hemoglobin and persistent fatigue 7. Persistent cough or hoarseness without reason 8. A solid lump; in the breast/testes, or anywhere in the body Local Effects of Tumors: ▪ Pain: o May be absent until very late stages o Occurs when tumor is well advanced o Severity depends on the type of tumor ▪ Obstruction: o Occurs when tumor compresses a duct or passageway o Blood supply or lymphatic flow may be restricted o Digestive tract o Airflow in bronchi ▪ Tissue Necrosis/Ulceration: o May lead to bleeding or infection around the tumor (ischemia necrosis) Systemic Effects of Malignant Tumors: ▪ Weight loss and (weakness and wasting): o Anorexia, fatigue, pain, stress o Increased demands on the body from tumor cells ▪ Anemia: o Caused by blood loss at tumor site o Nutritional deficits may reduce hemoglobin synthesis ▪ Severe fatigue: o Caused by inflammatory changes, cachexia and anemia o Stress of treatment schedule o Psychological factors ▪ Infections: o Often occur as resistance declines ▪ Bleeding: o Tumor cells may erode the blood vessels/platelets ▪ Paraneoplastic syndrome: o Associated with certain tumor types o Tumor cells release substances that affect neurological function and may have hormonal effects Spread: 1. Invasion: • Local spread • Tumor cells grow into adjacent tissues • Example: uterine carcinoma invades the vagina 2. Metastasis: • Spread to distant sites • Via blood or lymph or other body fluids 3. Seeding: • Spread of cancer cells in body fluids or along membrane; usually in body cavities • Example: carcinoma of the colon spreads to the liver Staging: ▪ Describes the extent of the disease ▪ Used to estimate prognosis ▪ TMN system o Size of primary tumor (T) o Involvement of regional lymph nodes (N) o Spread of tumor (M)-metasistes ▪ Stage 1: small, localized, good prognosis ▪ Stage IV: well advanced, difficult to treat, spread, poor prognosis Diagnostic tests: • Blood test • Tumor markers • Imaging • Cytologic tests (for screening high risk individuals); Confirms cancer via biopsy Treatment • Chemo • Radiation • Gene therapy • Stem cell transplant • Drugs Chapter 2 Filtration ▪ Movement into interstitial (filtering goods from blood into the space for the cell) Osmosis ▪ Movement into intervascular Fluid Volume Excess Causes 1. Kidney failure 2. Liver failure 3. Heart failure 4. Increased sodium intake 5. IV fluids 6. Blood transfusions Manifestations 1. Dyspnea 2. Decreased lab values (everything is diluted) 3. Increased urine output 4. High BP 5. JVD 6. Edema