Alternative Drive Systems: introduction
Raf Catthoor, KdG Antwerp
Hubert Berger, University of Applied Sciences JOANNEUM, Graz/Kapfenberg, Austria
Inleiding: waarom elektrische voertuigen
Motoren voor elektrische tractie: BLDC, BLAC, PMSM
Batterijen
Ultracaps
Brandstofcellen
Elektrische voertuigen
Hybride Elektrische voertuigen
On board power supply: alternator, startmotor
1. The era of combustion engines
Up until now, progress in automotive propulsion technology has been predominantly
determined by continuous improvements in combustion engine technologies. A remarkable
increase in efficiency has been achieved by optimizing the combustion process, and these
developments have resulted in fewer pollutants such as as NOx and CO, considerably reduced
CO2 emissions and an increase in the number of kilometres travelled per litre. Figure 1.1 shows
how fuel consumption (100km/litre) in Germany steadily improved over a period of 25 years
from 1978.
Measured according
New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)
Fuel consumption
Measured according
Old Cycle (urban, 90Km/h,
120km/h)
Year
NEDC calculated NEDC Old mix
Fig. 1.1. Increase in kilometres travelled (reduction of
fuel consumption) per car in Germany 1978-2004
However research work in the field of combustion processes is approaching to physical limits
concerning the combustion process. Today’s obviously dramatic consequences of climate
change, caused primarily by the rise of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere requires new
,concepts in energy production and consumption, including automobile propulsion technologies,
which are no longer based on burning fossil fuels.
By burning fossil fuels we are actually blowing about 36 Gt of CO2 yearly in the atmosphere.
Even if a big portion of this is absorbed by increased biomass formation (~ 21 Gt) our
atmosphere’s CO2 concentration is still increasing by the incredible amount of ~16 Gt every
year (Fig 1.2)
agriculture
1,5 Gt/y
Increased CO2-
Increased
Fossile Fuels Concentration in
Biomass-
36 Gt/y atmosphere
formation
(17% = road ~16 Gt/y
~21 Gt/y
transport)
Photosynthesis Currently: 380ppmv
„natural“ CO2-
generation „natural“ CO2-
550 Gt/y absorption
550 Gt/y
Thereof by
human
respiration
2 Gt/y
Fig. 1.2: Changes in the carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere
The increased CO2 concentration (see Figure 1.3) has already caused an anomaly in the World’s
overall energy balance of 2,5 W per square meter. This means that the absorbed energy from
the sun is 2,5 W higher than the emitted energy (emitted primarily via infrared radiation). This
might seem small when compared to the total irradiated energy of 1367 W per square meter
beyond the atmosphere (solar constant) and about 1000 W per square meter on earth. But it
corresponds to 100 times the total world energy consumption.
2
, The industrial revolution has caused a
dramatic rise in CO2 emissions
year (A.D.)
Glacial periods
Fig. 1.3: Changes of Carbon dioxide–concentration in atmosphere
The imbalance is caused by the accumulation of CO2 impeding infrared radiation being radiated
to space from earth, while allowing solar energy, irradiated via higher frequency
electromagnetic waves to reach the planet’s surface (see Figure 1.4).
Fig. 1.4: Global energy balance
Nowadays climate change is considered the most threatening problem for the World. For
example, Figure 1.5 shows the environmental changes that have occurred in the alpine regions
as clear proof of already irreversible loss and damage. Worldwide increases in natural disasters
such as hurricanes (+60% in the last 15 years) or droughts are further consequences with
thousands of people killed and injured as well as considerable financial losses.
3
, Fig. 1.5: Glacier „Pasterze“ in the province of Salzburg in 1900 and in 2000
The rise in sea level (see Figure 1.6) as a consequence of melting polar ice caps could destroy
the livelihoods of millions of people throughout this century.
Fig.1.6: Forecasts for sea-level rise as a consequence of melting pole
capes
Fig. 1.7 shows the already measured rise in the annual mean temperatures during the period
1995-2004. It can be seen that the landmasses in the northern hemisphere will be more affected
and warm up faster as the have less capacity for energy storage than the big oceans.
Fig. 1.7: Measured change of annual mean temperatures in °C
4
Raf Catthoor, KdG Antwerp
Hubert Berger, University of Applied Sciences JOANNEUM, Graz/Kapfenberg, Austria
Inleiding: waarom elektrische voertuigen
Motoren voor elektrische tractie: BLDC, BLAC, PMSM
Batterijen
Ultracaps
Brandstofcellen
Elektrische voertuigen
Hybride Elektrische voertuigen
On board power supply: alternator, startmotor
1. The era of combustion engines
Up until now, progress in automotive propulsion technology has been predominantly
determined by continuous improvements in combustion engine technologies. A remarkable
increase in efficiency has been achieved by optimizing the combustion process, and these
developments have resulted in fewer pollutants such as as NOx and CO, considerably reduced
CO2 emissions and an increase in the number of kilometres travelled per litre. Figure 1.1 shows
how fuel consumption (100km/litre) in Germany steadily improved over a period of 25 years
from 1978.
Measured according
New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)
Fuel consumption
Measured according
Old Cycle (urban, 90Km/h,
120km/h)
Year
NEDC calculated NEDC Old mix
Fig. 1.1. Increase in kilometres travelled (reduction of
fuel consumption) per car in Germany 1978-2004
However research work in the field of combustion processes is approaching to physical limits
concerning the combustion process. Today’s obviously dramatic consequences of climate
change, caused primarily by the rise of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere requires new
,concepts in energy production and consumption, including automobile propulsion technologies,
which are no longer based on burning fossil fuels.
By burning fossil fuels we are actually blowing about 36 Gt of CO2 yearly in the atmosphere.
Even if a big portion of this is absorbed by increased biomass formation (~ 21 Gt) our
atmosphere’s CO2 concentration is still increasing by the incredible amount of ~16 Gt every
year (Fig 1.2)
agriculture
1,5 Gt/y
Increased CO2-
Increased
Fossile Fuels Concentration in
Biomass-
36 Gt/y atmosphere
formation
(17% = road ~16 Gt/y
~21 Gt/y
transport)
Photosynthesis Currently: 380ppmv
„natural“ CO2-
generation „natural“ CO2-
550 Gt/y absorption
550 Gt/y
Thereof by
human
respiration
2 Gt/y
Fig. 1.2: Changes in the carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere
The increased CO2 concentration (see Figure 1.3) has already caused an anomaly in the World’s
overall energy balance of 2,5 W per square meter. This means that the absorbed energy from
the sun is 2,5 W higher than the emitted energy (emitted primarily via infrared radiation). This
might seem small when compared to the total irradiated energy of 1367 W per square meter
beyond the atmosphere (solar constant) and about 1000 W per square meter on earth. But it
corresponds to 100 times the total world energy consumption.
2
, The industrial revolution has caused a
dramatic rise in CO2 emissions
year (A.D.)
Glacial periods
Fig. 1.3: Changes of Carbon dioxide–concentration in atmosphere
The imbalance is caused by the accumulation of CO2 impeding infrared radiation being radiated
to space from earth, while allowing solar energy, irradiated via higher frequency
electromagnetic waves to reach the planet’s surface (see Figure 1.4).
Fig. 1.4: Global energy balance
Nowadays climate change is considered the most threatening problem for the World. For
example, Figure 1.5 shows the environmental changes that have occurred in the alpine regions
as clear proof of already irreversible loss and damage. Worldwide increases in natural disasters
such as hurricanes (+60% in the last 15 years) or droughts are further consequences with
thousands of people killed and injured as well as considerable financial losses.
3
, Fig. 1.5: Glacier „Pasterze“ in the province of Salzburg in 1900 and in 2000
The rise in sea level (see Figure 1.6) as a consequence of melting polar ice caps could destroy
the livelihoods of millions of people throughout this century.
Fig.1.6: Forecasts for sea-level rise as a consequence of melting pole
capes
Fig. 1.7 shows the already measured rise in the annual mean temperatures during the period
1995-2004. It can be seen that the landmasses in the northern hemisphere will be more affected
and warm up faster as the have less capacity for energy storage than the big oceans.
Fig. 1.7: Measured change of annual mean temperatures in °C
4
