CHAPTER 1
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Identify the differences between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages
Describe the ways in which the Neolithic Revolution affected the lives of men and women
Explain the transformations brought by the agricultural revolution
Discuss the characteristics of civilization and the various explanations given for why early
civilizations emerged
Outline the characteristics of civilization in ancient Mesopotamia
Compare the similarities and differences between the three major periods of Egyptian history
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1-1 The First Humans
1-1a The Emergence of Homo sapiens
The Spread of Humans: Out of Africa or Multiregional?
1-1b The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age
1-1c The Neolithic Revolution (ca. 10,000–4,000 B. C. E.)
An Agricultural Revolution
Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution
New Developments
1-2 The Emergence of Civilization
1-2a Why Did Early Civilizations Develop?
1-3 Civilization in Mesopotamia
1-3a The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia
Sumerian Cities
Kingship
Economy and Society
1-3b Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia
The Code of Hammurabi
1-3c The Culture of Mesopotamia
The Importance of Religion
The Cultivation of New Arts and Sciences
1-4 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”
1-4a The Impact of Geography
1-4b The Old and Middle Kingdoms
The Old Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom
1-4c Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt
1-4d The Culture of Egypt
Spiritual Life in Egyptian Society
The Pyramids
Art and Writing
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
, 1-4e Disorder and a New Order: The New Kingdom
1-4f Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Family and Marriage
FOCUS QUESTIONS
1-1 The First Humans
How did the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ, and how did the Neolithic Revolution affect
the lives of men and women?
1-2 The Emergence of Civilization
What are the characteristics of civilization, and what are some explanations for why early
civilizations emerged?
1-3 Civilization in Mesopotamia
How are the chief characteristics of civilization evident in ancient Mesopotamia?
1-4 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”
What are the basic features of the three major periods of Egyptian history? What elements of
continuity are there in the three periods? What are their major differences?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Though challenged by the multiregional argument, most evidence points to Africa as humanity’s cradle,
beginning approximately three to four million years ago. Through the many millennia early humans
(hominids) began using stones, discovered fire, and in small bands they gathered wild plants and hunted
wild animals. Modern humans, known as Homo sapiens sapiens, appeared first in Africa no later than
150,000 years ago, and eventually spread throughout the world by the end of the Paleolithic era, or the
Old Stone Age.
A significant change in living patterns occurred beginning ca. 10,000 B.C.E. Known as the Neolithic (New
Stone Age) Revolution, also sometimes called the Agricultural Revolution, its significance was in
producing food through the domestication of plants and animals, an event that first occurred in the upland
regions of the Middle East’s Fertile Crescent. Permanent villages of up to a few thousand people replaced
nomadic bands, pottery was made from clay, and goods were accumulated and traded. A division of labor
appeared, and eventually men became the dominant gender because of their labor in food production.
Increasing complexity led to the further development of what is called civilization. Civilization is a
complex society that is held together by common characteristics, including living space (cities), religious
beliefs, a government of some sort, warriors to defend the civilization, artisans and scribes to beautify and
record, and a social hierarchy. The reasons for the genesis of civilization are debated by historians and
archaeologists, with explanations ranging from survival to food surplus.
By 3000 B.C.E., ancient Mesopotamia was a city-state civilization in Southwest Asia, created by a people
known as the Sumerians. The rivers were tamed but remained unpredictable, affecting both religion and
the arts (notably in the Epic of Gilgamesh), priests and kings held a monopoly of power, ziggurats
(temples) were constructed of brick, and trade and commerce expanded, although most of the inhabitants
were farmers. Writing on clay in a writing system known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped) also began.
Located on flat plains, the city-states were vulnerable to invasion. The result was the creation of a series
of empires, beginning with the Akkadians ca. 2340 B.C.E., later followed by the Babylonians, famous for
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
,Hammurabi’s law code (ca.1750 B.C.E.). The centrality of religion was exemplified in the Epic of
Gilgamesh. Stele were constructed as tools of communication and legitimation—a feature shared by
other civilizations outside Mesopotamia.
Civilization also developed along Egypt’s Nile River, a more predictable river than those in
Mesopotamia, and Egyptian religion reflected its more benign nature. The Nile also served as a unifier of
ancient Egypt, and surrounded by deserts, Egypt was less subject to invasion. Egyptian pharaohs were
perceived as gods, unlike the rulers in Mesopotamia, and their tombs were the pyramids that were
constructed during the Old Kingdom, ca. 2575–2125 B.C.E. Religion was at the core of Egyptian society,
culture, and politics, not least in the various divine manifestations of the ever-present sun. A quest for
immortality developed, particularly around the cult of Osiris, and mummification became widespread
during the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2125–2010 B.C.E.), whose end coincided with an invasion of the Hyksos
peoples. Native rule resumed during the New Kingdom (ca. 1539–1069 B.C.E.), an era of Egyptian
imperialistic expansion throughout much of the Middle East.
During the 1330s B.C.E., a potentially radical religious revolution began with the pharaoh Amenhotep IV,
who assumed the name Akhenaten, in honor of his god, Aten, god of the sun disk. His actions in closing
the temples devoted to the other gods alienated the priesthood, particularly the priests of the powerful
god, Amon-Re. After his death, the old gods were restored, but in his religious pursuits, Akhenaten had
neglected foreign policy, and Palestine and Syria were lost from Egyptian rule. In the 1200s B.C.E., the so-
called Sea Peoples invaded Egypt, and during the next millennium Egypt was often dominated by foreign
empires, such as the Assyrian, Persian, and Macedonian. In the late first century B.C.E., Egypt became a
Roman province.
SUGGESTED LECTURE/DISCUSSION TOPICS
1. The Emergence of “Pre-history” through the Neolithic Revolution
2. The Term “Civilization”—Its Meanings, Locales, and Significance
3. Religion in Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations
4. Mesopotamian Development, Including Serial Invasions, as Well as Change and Continuity
5. The Legacy of the Ancient Near East and its Contributions to Western Civilization
6. Egypt, the Nile, and Geographical Determinism in the Context of Ancient Egyptian Civilization
7. The Nature of Hierarchy and Social Organization in Early Civilizations (Mesopotamian and Egyptian)
8. The Changing Roles of Men and Women in Early Agricultural Societies, Mesopotamia, and Egypt
MAP EXERCISES
1. The Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens. MAP 1.1. What can you discern about the spread of Homo
sapiens sapiens from this map? What role might changing climate patterns play in the spread of human
beings, as indicated in this map?
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
, 2. MAPS 1.2–1.6. What similarities or patterns can you see in the location of early civilizations in the
Near East, India, and Asia based on maps 1.2–1.6? Why do civilizations tend to appear near certain
geographic features? How might the natural, geographic restrictions on civilization lead to conflict
between civilizations?
3. The Ancient Near East. MAP 1.6. What are some of the geographical factors that can explain the
development of civilization in the Near East? What was the significance of the Fertile Crescent to Near
Eastern societies and civilizations?
4. Ancient Egypt. MAP 1.7. From the map, discuss the concept that Egypt was the “gift of the Nile.”
Were there other geographical factors that also played a role in the development and success of
Egyptian civilization? What are some differences in the geography of Mesopotamia and Egypt? How does
the geography of Egypt help explain how it suffered far fewer invasions than the empires of
Mesopotamia?
THOUGHT/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCES
1. “The Code of Hammurabi”: What do the 12 points of law in the excerpt from the Code of Hammurabi
reveal about Mesopotamian society? How do they emphasize the principle of “an eye for an eye”?
What legal rights do women receive from this code?
2. “Opposing Viewpoints—The Great Flood: Two Versions”: Analyze the flood story from The Epic of
Gilgamesh. Compare this excerpt to the appropriate passage of the Biblical flood epic of Noah. What
are the similarities and what are the differences? How does one account for both the similarities and
differences? Why were flood epics a central subject matter in the ancient world?
3. “Images of Everyday Life—The Egyptian Diet”: By identifying the typical foods consumed by the
Egyptian population, how did the Nile River and Egypt’s location play a role in such a diverse diet?
How did the diet of upper class Egyptians differ from the poor?
4. “Akhenaten’s Hymn to Aten”: What would be the significance of the sun disk to ancient Egyptians?
From the poem, can it be claimed that Akhanaten was a true monotheist? Why or why not?
5. “A Father’s Advice”: According to this document, what social and political skills were prized by
members of the Egyptian governing elite? What does the passage relate about Egyptian bureaucrats?
Is there anything uniquely Egyptian about the advice, or was it applicable and universal to most
ancient societies?
STUDENT RESEARCH AND PROJECT TOPICS
1. Have students research the various Homo sapiens sapiens of the Paleolithic period, such as Java and
Peking Man, Neanderthal Man, and Cro-Magnon Man. Are there any significant similarities or
differences among early humans in various parts of the world?
2. Have students explore the various aspects of the everyday lives of men and women in the Paleolithic
era and contrast those with life in the later Neolithic period.
3. Have students read or watch “Out of Eden,” a chapter of Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs and Steel,
and have them report on his thesis of geography as the sole determining factor of the birth of
civilization, and either support or reject it.
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Identify the differences between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages
Describe the ways in which the Neolithic Revolution affected the lives of men and women
Explain the transformations brought by the agricultural revolution
Discuss the characteristics of civilization and the various explanations given for why early
civilizations emerged
Outline the characteristics of civilization in ancient Mesopotamia
Compare the similarities and differences between the three major periods of Egyptian history
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1-1 The First Humans
1-1a The Emergence of Homo sapiens
The Spread of Humans: Out of Africa or Multiregional?
1-1b The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age
1-1c The Neolithic Revolution (ca. 10,000–4,000 B. C. E.)
An Agricultural Revolution
Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution
New Developments
1-2 The Emergence of Civilization
1-2a Why Did Early Civilizations Develop?
1-3 Civilization in Mesopotamia
1-3a The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia
Sumerian Cities
Kingship
Economy and Society
1-3b Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia
The Code of Hammurabi
1-3c The Culture of Mesopotamia
The Importance of Religion
The Cultivation of New Arts and Sciences
1-4 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”
1-4a The Impact of Geography
1-4b The Old and Middle Kingdoms
The Old Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom
1-4c Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt
1-4d The Culture of Egypt
Spiritual Life in Egyptian Society
The Pyramids
Art and Writing
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
, 1-4e Disorder and a New Order: The New Kingdom
1-4f Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Family and Marriage
FOCUS QUESTIONS
1-1 The First Humans
How did the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ, and how did the Neolithic Revolution affect
the lives of men and women?
1-2 The Emergence of Civilization
What are the characteristics of civilization, and what are some explanations for why early
civilizations emerged?
1-3 Civilization in Mesopotamia
How are the chief characteristics of civilization evident in ancient Mesopotamia?
1-4 Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”
What are the basic features of the three major periods of Egyptian history? What elements of
continuity are there in the three periods? What are their major differences?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Though challenged by the multiregional argument, most evidence points to Africa as humanity’s cradle,
beginning approximately three to four million years ago. Through the many millennia early humans
(hominids) began using stones, discovered fire, and in small bands they gathered wild plants and hunted
wild animals. Modern humans, known as Homo sapiens sapiens, appeared first in Africa no later than
150,000 years ago, and eventually spread throughout the world by the end of the Paleolithic era, or the
Old Stone Age.
A significant change in living patterns occurred beginning ca. 10,000 B.C.E. Known as the Neolithic (New
Stone Age) Revolution, also sometimes called the Agricultural Revolution, its significance was in
producing food through the domestication of plants and animals, an event that first occurred in the upland
regions of the Middle East’s Fertile Crescent. Permanent villages of up to a few thousand people replaced
nomadic bands, pottery was made from clay, and goods were accumulated and traded. A division of labor
appeared, and eventually men became the dominant gender because of their labor in food production.
Increasing complexity led to the further development of what is called civilization. Civilization is a
complex society that is held together by common characteristics, including living space (cities), religious
beliefs, a government of some sort, warriors to defend the civilization, artisans and scribes to beautify and
record, and a social hierarchy. The reasons for the genesis of civilization are debated by historians and
archaeologists, with explanations ranging from survival to food surplus.
By 3000 B.C.E., ancient Mesopotamia was a city-state civilization in Southwest Asia, created by a people
known as the Sumerians. The rivers were tamed but remained unpredictable, affecting both religion and
the arts (notably in the Epic of Gilgamesh), priests and kings held a monopoly of power, ziggurats
(temples) were constructed of brick, and trade and commerce expanded, although most of the inhabitants
were farmers. Writing on clay in a writing system known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped) also began.
Located on flat plains, the city-states were vulnerable to invasion. The result was the creation of a series
of empires, beginning with the Akkadians ca. 2340 B.C.E., later followed by the Babylonians, famous for
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
,Hammurabi’s law code (ca.1750 B.C.E.). The centrality of religion was exemplified in the Epic of
Gilgamesh. Stele were constructed as tools of communication and legitimation—a feature shared by
other civilizations outside Mesopotamia.
Civilization also developed along Egypt’s Nile River, a more predictable river than those in
Mesopotamia, and Egyptian religion reflected its more benign nature. The Nile also served as a unifier of
ancient Egypt, and surrounded by deserts, Egypt was less subject to invasion. Egyptian pharaohs were
perceived as gods, unlike the rulers in Mesopotamia, and their tombs were the pyramids that were
constructed during the Old Kingdom, ca. 2575–2125 B.C.E. Religion was at the core of Egyptian society,
culture, and politics, not least in the various divine manifestations of the ever-present sun. A quest for
immortality developed, particularly around the cult of Osiris, and mummification became widespread
during the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2125–2010 B.C.E.), whose end coincided with an invasion of the Hyksos
peoples. Native rule resumed during the New Kingdom (ca. 1539–1069 B.C.E.), an era of Egyptian
imperialistic expansion throughout much of the Middle East.
During the 1330s B.C.E., a potentially radical religious revolution began with the pharaoh Amenhotep IV,
who assumed the name Akhenaten, in honor of his god, Aten, god of the sun disk. His actions in closing
the temples devoted to the other gods alienated the priesthood, particularly the priests of the powerful
god, Amon-Re. After his death, the old gods were restored, but in his religious pursuits, Akhenaten had
neglected foreign policy, and Palestine and Syria were lost from Egyptian rule. In the 1200s B.C.E., the so-
called Sea Peoples invaded Egypt, and during the next millennium Egypt was often dominated by foreign
empires, such as the Assyrian, Persian, and Macedonian. In the late first century B.C.E., Egypt became a
Roman province.
SUGGESTED LECTURE/DISCUSSION TOPICS
1. The Emergence of “Pre-history” through the Neolithic Revolution
2. The Term “Civilization”—Its Meanings, Locales, and Significance
3. Religion in Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations
4. Mesopotamian Development, Including Serial Invasions, as Well as Change and Continuity
5. The Legacy of the Ancient Near East and its Contributions to Western Civilization
6. Egypt, the Nile, and Geographical Determinism in the Context of Ancient Egyptian Civilization
7. The Nature of Hierarchy and Social Organization in Early Civilizations (Mesopotamian and Egyptian)
8. The Changing Roles of Men and Women in Early Agricultural Societies, Mesopotamia, and Egypt
MAP EXERCISES
1. The Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens. MAP 1.1. What can you discern about the spread of Homo
sapiens sapiens from this map? What role might changing climate patterns play in the spread of human
beings, as indicated in this map?
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
, 2. MAPS 1.2–1.6. What similarities or patterns can you see in the location of early civilizations in the
Near East, India, and Asia based on maps 1.2–1.6? Why do civilizations tend to appear near certain
geographic features? How might the natural, geographic restrictions on civilization lead to conflict
between civilizations?
3. The Ancient Near East. MAP 1.6. What are some of the geographical factors that can explain the
development of civilization in the Near East? What was the significance of the Fertile Crescent to Near
Eastern societies and civilizations?
4. Ancient Egypt. MAP 1.7. From the map, discuss the concept that Egypt was the “gift of the Nile.”
Were there other geographical factors that also played a role in the development and success of
Egyptian civilization? What are some differences in the geography of Mesopotamia and Egypt? How does
the geography of Egypt help explain how it suffered far fewer invasions than the empires of
Mesopotamia?
THOUGHT/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCES
1. “The Code of Hammurabi”: What do the 12 points of law in the excerpt from the Code of Hammurabi
reveal about Mesopotamian society? How do they emphasize the principle of “an eye for an eye”?
What legal rights do women receive from this code?
2. “Opposing Viewpoints—The Great Flood: Two Versions”: Analyze the flood story from The Epic of
Gilgamesh. Compare this excerpt to the appropriate passage of the Biblical flood epic of Noah. What
are the similarities and what are the differences? How does one account for both the similarities and
differences? Why were flood epics a central subject matter in the ancient world?
3. “Images of Everyday Life—The Egyptian Diet”: By identifying the typical foods consumed by the
Egyptian population, how did the Nile River and Egypt’s location play a role in such a diverse diet?
How did the diet of upper class Egyptians differ from the poor?
4. “Akhenaten’s Hymn to Aten”: What would be the significance of the sun disk to ancient Egyptians?
From the poem, can it be claimed that Akhanaten was a true monotheist? Why or why not?
5. “A Father’s Advice”: According to this document, what social and political skills were prized by
members of the Egyptian governing elite? What does the passage relate about Egyptian bureaucrats?
Is there anything uniquely Egyptian about the advice, or was it applicable and universal to most
ancient societies?
STUDENT RESEARCH AND PROJECT TOPICS
1. Have students research the various Homo sapiens sapiens of the Paleolithic period, such as Java and
Peking Man, Neanderthal Man, and Cro-Magnon Man. Are there any significant similarities or
differences among early humans in various parts of the world?
2. Have students explore the various aspects of the everyday lives of men and women in the Paleolithic
era and contrast those with life in the later Neolithic period.
3. Have students read or watch “Out of Eden,” a chapter of Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs and Steel,
and have them report on his thesis of geography as the sole determining factor of the birth of
civilization, and either support or reject it.
© 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
