Crju 703 - Midterm Exam Questions With Verified Solutions Latest Update 2026

CRJU 703 - MIDTERM EXAM QUESTIONS WITH VERIFIED SOLUTIONS LATEST UPDATE 2026 Scientific Inquiry - Answers A systematic, controlled approach to understanding phenomena using observation and evidence rather than intuition or opinion. Probabilistic Nature of Science - Answers The idea that science seeks likelihoods and patterns, not absolute certainty. Empirical Evidence - Answers Information gathered through observation or experimentation. Theory - Answers A set of concepts linked together to explain why phenomena occur. Hypothesis - Answers A testable prediction about the relationship between variables. Concepts - Answers Abstract ideas that form the building blocks of research (e.g., "recidivism" or "victimization"). Operationalization - Answers Converting abstract concepts into measurable observations. Variables - Answers Measurable traits that can vary (e.g., age, offense type). Independent Variable - Answers A variable believed to influence another. Dependent Variable - Answers The outcome affected by the independent variable. Ethics - Answers Moral principles guiding responsible research conduct. Informed Consent - Answers Participants' voluntary agreement with full knowledge of risks. Confidentiality - Answers Protecting the identity and data of research participants. Institutional Review Board (IRB) - Answers A committee that reviews research proposals for ethical compliance. Research Design - Answers Overall strategy to integrate methods and procedures in a study. Internal Validity - Answers The degree to which a study demonstrates a causal relationship. External Validity - Answers The extent that findings can be generalized beyond the study. Control Group - Answers A group that does not receive the experimental treatment. Measurement - Answers Process of assigning numbers or labels to concepts according to rules. Levels of Measurement - Nominal - Answers Categories without numeric order (e.g., gender). Levels of Measurement - Ordinal - Answers Categories with a logical order (e.g., ranking). Levels of Measurement - Interval/Ration - Answers Numeric scales with equal intervals (e.g., age, test scores). Reliability - Answers Consistency of a measurement over time. Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) - Answers Official U.S. crime statistics compiled by the FBI. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) - Answers A survey that measures crime from the victims' perspective. Crime Rate - Answers The number of crimes per unit of population. Experiment - Answers A research design where the researcher manipulates one variable and observes the effect on another. Random Assignment - Answers Placing subjects into groups by chance to reduce bias. Quasi-Experimental Design - Answers Like experiments but without full randomization. Sampling - Answers Selecting a subset of a population to represent the whole. Probability Sampling - Answers Every member of the population has a known chance of selection (e.g., simple random, stratified). Non-Probability Sampling - Answers Selection not based on chance (e.g., convenience sampling). Validity - Answers Extent to which a measurement or study accurately measures or reflects what it is intended to measure. Construct Validity - Answers The degree to which a measurement truly represents the theoretical concept it is supposed to measure. Measurement Validity - Answers Whether a specific instrument or measure accurately captures the concept it is designed to assess. Errors in personal human inquiry (6) - Answers Inaccurate Observation, Overgeneralization, Selective Observation, Illogical Reasoning, Ideology & Politics, to Err is Human Errors in personal human inquiry - Inaccurate Observation - Answers Must know what before we can explain what. We see or hear things incorrectly. Human perception is flawed, and we often misinterpret events. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: A person assumes crime is increasing because they saw several news stories about violent incidents, even if actual crime rates are decreasing. - Answers Inaccurate Observation (Errors in personal human inquiry) Errors in personal human inquiry - Overgeneralization - Answers Drawing a broad conclusion based on too few cases. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: Meeting two repeat offenders and concluding that "all offenders will reoffend." - Answers Overgeneralization (Errors in personal human inquiry) Errors in personal human inquiry - Selective Observation - Answers Paying attention only to evidence that confirms what we already believe and ignoring evidence that contradicts it. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: Believing that probation doesn't work and only noticing cases where probationers reoffend, while ignoring successful cases. - Answers Selective Observation (Errors in personal human inquiry) Errors in personal human inquiry - Illogical Reasoning - Answers Drawing conclusions that do not logically follow from the evidence. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: Assuming that because two events occur together (e.g., more police patrols and more arrests), one must have caused the other without considering other factors. - Answers Illogical Reasoning (Errors in personal human inquiry) Errors in personal human inquiry - Ideology & Politics - Answers Ideological and political views on issues can undermine objectivity in the research process. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: Suppose a study finds that a rehabilitation program reduces recidivism. A person who strongly believes that "offenders only respond to punishment" may dismiss the study as flawed without examining the methodology. Conversely, someone who strongly supports rehabilitation may ignore research showing that a specific program was ineffective. - Answers Ideology & Politics Errors in personal human inquiry - to Err is Human - Answers The idea that human beings naturally make mistakes in observing, interpreting, and explaining the world. Which Errors in personal human inquiry is this an example of: A researcher studying police use of force believes, based on several highly publicized incidents, that use-of-force cases are rapidly increasing nationwide. Without collecting systematic data, the researcher designs a study assuming an increase has already occurred. - Answers to Err is Human Purposes of Research (4) - Answers Exploration, Description, Explanation, Application Purposes of Research - Exploration - Answers Research is conducted to investigate a topic that is new, not well understood, or lacks prior research. Purposes of Research - Description - Answers Research seeks to accurately describe characteristics, behaviors, or situations. It answers questions such as "what," "who," "where," and "how much." Purposes of Research - Explanation - Answers Research aims to identify the causes of phenomena and explain why events occur. It examines relationships between variables and often tests hypotheses. Purposes of Research - Application - Answers Research is conducted to solve practical problems and inform policy or decision-making in real-world settings. The Research Process (9 steps) - Answers 1. Select a Topic 2. Review the literature 3. Formulate a Research Question or Hypothesis 4. Develop a Research Design 5. Operationalize Concepts & Measure Variables 6. Select a Sample 7. Collect the Data 8. Analyze the Data 9. Interpret and Report Findings What part of the research process is this... Choose a general area of interest (e.g., juvenile delinquency, policing strategies, sentencing disparities). - Answers Select a Topic What part of the research process is this... Examine existing research to understand what is already known, identify gaps, and refine the research question. - Answers Review the Literature What part of the research process is this... Decide how the study will be conducted (experiment, survey, field research, secondary data analysis, etc.). This includes selecting methods and planning procedures. - Answers Develop a Research Design Research question or hypothesis? What do you want to find out? - Answers Research Question Research question or hypothesis? A testable prediction about the relationship between variables. - Answers Hypothesis What part of the research process is this... Define abstract concepts in measurable terms and determine how data will be collected. - Answers Operationalize Concepts & Measure Variables What part of the research process is this... Choose a subset of the population that represents the larger group being studied. - Answers Select a Sample What part of the research process is this... Gather information using surveys, interviews, official records, experiments, or observations. - Answers Collect the Data What part of the research process is this... Use statistical or qualitative analysis to examine patterns and test hypotheses. - Answers Analyze the Data What part of the research process is this... Draw conclusions based on the data and communicate the results in reports, articles, or presentations. - Answers Interpret and Report Findings Experiential Reality - Answers things we know from direct experience. Agreement Reality - Answers things we consider real becasue we've been told they're real and everyone else seems to agree they're real. Epistemology - Answers Science of Knowing Methodology - Answers The science of finding out. Aggregate - Answers A collection of individuals who share certain characteristics but do not necessarily interact with one another or have a structured relationship. Bigots - Answers Person who is strongly and unfairly prejudiced against individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or other identities Bigotry - Answers Involves rigid intolerance and refusal to consider evidence that contradicts one's biased beliefs. Attributes - Answers Characteristics or qualities that describe some object, such as a person. Idiographic approach - Answers Focus on depth of understanding of individual cases rather than broad generalization. Nomothetic approach - Answers Seeks general laws or patterns across many cases. Inductive Reasoning - Answers Moves from specific observations to broader generalizations or theories. Deductive Reasoning - Answers Moves from general theory or hypothesis to specific observations to test whether the theory is supported. Intersubject Agreement - Answers Extent to which different observers or researchers independently arrive at the same conclusion when studying the same phenomenon Paradigm - Answers Fundamental model or scheme that organizes our view of something. Grounded theory - Answers Qualitative research method that involves developing a theory based on data that are systematically collected and analyzed. Instead of starting with a hypothesis, grounded theory allows patterns, concepts, and theories to emerge from the data itself. Near Repeats - Answers Pattern in which a crime is likely to occur again in a nearby location, within a short period of time, after an initial crime has been committed. Contagion - Answers Spread of behavior, especially criminal or deviant behavior, through social interaction or exposure to others Hypothesis Testing - Answers Using statistical methods to determine whether there is enough evidence to support a research hypothesis. Cohort Study - Answers Cross-Sectional Study - Answers Data collected at one time point (snapshot). Ecological Fallacy - Answers The danger of making assertions about individuals based on the examination of groups or other aggregations. Longitudinal Study - Answers Data collected over multiple time points (tracks change over time). Panel Study - Answers A longitudinal study that are like trend and cohort studies, except observations are made on the same set of people on 2 or more occasions. Prospective - Answers Begins in the present and follows subjects forward into the future to observe outcomes. Reductionism - Answers Overly strict limitation of the concepts and variables to be considered as causes of the broad range of human behavior represented by crime and criminal justice policy.