WJEC CRIMINOLOGY | UNIT 2 — CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
WJEC LEVEL 3 APPLIED DIPLOMA IN CRIMINOLOGY — UNIT 2
INDEPENDENT STUDENT STUDY GUIDE | ORIGINAL PRACTICE MATERIAL | 2026–2027
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
Complete Study Guide | Original Model Answers, Revision Notes & Exam Preparation | Updated 2026–2027
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 — Understand Social Constructions of Criminality
AC 1.1 — Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
AC 1.2 — Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 — Know Theories of Criminality
AC 2.1 — Describe Biological Theories of Criminality
AC 2.2 — Describe Individualistic Theories of Criminality
AC 2.3 — Describe Sociological Theories of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 — Understand Causes of Criminality
AC 3.1 — Analyse Situations of Criminality
AC 3.2 — Evaluate the Effectiveness of Criminological Theories to Explain Causes of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 4 — Understand Causes of Policy Change
AC 4.1 — Assess the Use of Criminological Theories in Informing Policy Development
AC 4.2 — Explain How Social Changes Affect Policy Development
AC 4.3 — Discuss How Campaigns Affect Policy Making
UNIT 2 COVERAGE: 4 Learning Outcomes | 10 Assessment Criteria
STUDY FEATURES: Detailed Revision Notes • Original Exam-Style Model Answers • Criminological Theories • Research
Studies • Real-World Case Examples • Comparison Tables • Practice Questions • Explained Answers • Exam Strategies
ASSESSMENT TYPE: Externally Examined Unit
AC 1.1 — Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Introduction
Criminal behaviour and deviance are closely connected concepts, but they are not identical.
Criminal behaviour involves breaking laws established by the state, while deviance involves breaking social norms,
expectations or accepted standards of behaviour.
Some actions are both criminal and deviant, whereas others may be deviant without being criminal.
Understanding these differences helps criminologists explain why society labels certain behaviours as unacceptable and how
these judgements can change.
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1. Key differences
Feature Criminal behaviour Deviance
Definition Behaviour that breaks criminal law Behaviour that violates social norms
Who defines it? Lawmakers and the legal system Society, communities and social groups
Consequences Criminal penalties may apply Informal sanctions, criticism or exclusion
Enforcement Police, courts and other legal authorities Families, peers, institutions and communities
Example Theft, assault, fraud Unusual dress, violating social customs
Can it change? Yes, through legal reforms Yes, through changing cultural values
Relationship Some crimes are also considered deviant Some deviant actions are not criminal
The official WJEC specification requires students to understand legal and social definitions, formal and informal sanctions,
examples of both crime and deviance, and the consequences of each.
2. Original Exam-Style Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 2 — AC 1.1
Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Introduction
Criminal behaviour and deviance are closely related concepts in criminology. Both involve behaviour that may be considered
unacceptable within society. However, they differ in how they are defined, who determines whether they are unacceptable and
the consequences for individuals who engage in them.
Criminal behaviour breaks laws established by the state, whereas deviance involves behaviour that violates social norms,
moral codes or values.
1. Criminal Behaviour
Criminal behaviour refers to actions or omissions that break criminal law and may result in legal sanctions.
Examples include murder, assault, theft, fraud and certain drug offences.
A legal definition of crime focuses on whether an action violates a criminal law. A social definition focuses on behaviour
considered wrongful or harmful by society.
For example, stealing another person's property is a criminal offence because it breaches the law. It is also generally
considered morally unacceptable because it interferes with another person's property rights.
Criminal behaviour is investigated and dealt with through formal institutions such as the police and courts.
Possible sanctions include fines, community sentences and imprisonment.
2. Deviance
Deviance refers to behaviour that violates the norms, values or expectations of a particular society or social group.
Social norms are unwritten expectations about how people should behave. Values are beliefs about what is considered
important, desirable or acceptable.
For example, wearing unusually informal clothing to a formal ceremony might be considered deviant because it breaks social
expectations.
However, this behaviour would not normally be a criminal offence.
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Deviance can also involve more serious behaviour, such as bullying or discriminatory conduct. Depending on the
circumstances, some forms may also be criminal.
Consequences of deviance can include criticism, ridicule, stigma and social exclusion.
3. Similarities Between Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Similarity 1: Both involve breaking established rules or expectations.
Criminal behaviour breaches legal rules, while deviance breaches social expectations.
For example, theft breaks criminal law and commonly violates social values concerning honesty and respect for property.
Similarity 2: Both can result in sanctions.
Criminal behaviour can lead to formal legal punishment, while deviance can produce informal consequences such as
disapproval or exclusion.
Some deviant conduct can also attract formal sanctions when it breaches institutional rules or criminal law.
Similarity 3: Both are influenced by social values.
Laws and social norms can reflect beliefs about acceptable behaviour.
As attitudes change, societies may reconsider whether particular conduct should be punished, tolerated or accepted.
4. Differences Between Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Difference 1: Criminal behaviour is legally defined, whereas deviance is socially defined.
An action becomes criminal when it breaches the relevant law.
Deviance depends on the norms of a particular social group or community.
For example, theft is a criminal offence, whereas speaking loudly in a quiet library may be considered deviant without being
illegal.
Difference 2: The consequences are different.
Criminal behaviour may result in police investigation, prosecution and court-imposed punishment.
Deviance may lead to disapproval, embarrassment, rejection or informal social sanctions.
For example, someone convicted of theft may receive a legal penalty, while someone who violates a dress code may be
criticised or asked to change clothing.
Difference 3: Deviance can be more subjective.
The criminal status of an action depends on the law applicable at the time and place.
Deviance is more dependent on social context.
For example, clothing considered inappropriate in one community may be accepted in another.
5. Behaviour That Is Both Criminal and Deviant
Some behaviour is both illegal and widely considered socially unacceptable.
Examples include murder, sexual assault and robbery.
Murder is criminal because it breaks criminal law and may result in severe punishment.
It is also deviant because it violates strongly held social values concerning human life and safety.
Therefore, the offender may experience both formal legal sanctions and informal social condemnation.
6. Criminal but Not Necessarily Considered Deviant
Some criminal actions may not attract strong social disapproval.
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For example, exceeding a speed limit is a criminal offence, but some social groups may regard minor speeding as relatively
normal.
This does not mean speeding is harmless or acceptable. It demonstrates that legal rules and informal social attitudes do not
always coincide.
An individual may therefore commit an offence without being strongly labelled as deviant by their peers.
7. Deviant but Not Criminal
Some behaviour breaks social expectations without violating criminal law.
Examples may include unusual styles of dress, ignoring certain etiquette rules or refusing to follow informal community
traditions.
For example, attending a formal event in casual clothing may attract criticism but would not ordinarily result in prosecution.
This shows that social disapproval does not automatically make behaviour illegal.
8. Formal and Informal Sanctions
Formal sanctions are penalties imposed by authorised institutions or through established legal or disciplinary procedures.
Examples include imprisonment, fines and certain institutional disciplinary measures.
Informal sanctions arise through everyday social interactions.
Examples include criticism, ridicule, exclusion and loss of social approval.
Both forms of sanction encourage conformity, but they operate through different mechanisms.
Conclusion
Criminal behaviour and deviance are related because both concern actions considered unacceptable according to particular
rules or expectations.
However, criminal behaviour is defined by law, whereas deviance is defined by social norms, values and moral expectations.
Some actions, such as murder, are both criminal and deviant. Other actions, such as unusual clothing choices, may be
deviant without being illegal.
Certain criminal offences may also be regarded as relatively normal by some social groups.
Overall, the main difference is that criminality depends on legal rules, while deviance depends on social expectations.
Both concepts are important for understanding social control and why people respond differently to particular
behaviours.
3. Visual Comparison
The relationship between crime and deviance
4. Practice Exam Questions
Question 1. Which statement best explains the difference between crime and deviance?
A. Both must result in imprisonment
B. Crime breaks the law; deviance breaches social norms
C. All deviant behaviour is criminal
D. Crime is defined only by public opinion
Question 2. Which example is most clearly deviant but not criminal?
A. Robbery
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B. Burglary
C. Fraud
D. Wearing casual clothes to a formal ceremony
Question 3. Which is an example of a formal criminal sanction?
A. A court-imposed fine
B. Being criticised by friends
C. Being socially ignored
D. Receiving an unpleasant nickname
5. Exam Strategy
For AC 1.1, comparison is essential. Avoid simply defining crime and deviance separately. Explain their similarities and
differences using paired examples and distinguish formal from informal sanctions. The WJEC knowledge organiser specifically
highlights these areas.
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
AC 1.2 — Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Detailed Revision Notes & Original Exam-Style Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
The social construction of criminality is the idea that society influences which behaviours are defined as criminal. Laws are
created and changed by people and institutions, reflecting social values, political decisions, historical circumstances and
cultural expectations.
An action may therefore be illegal in one country but legal in another, or criminal at one point in history but permitted at a later
date.
For AC 1.2, students need to understand how definitions of crime vary according to time, place, culture and social
circumstances.
1. Factors influencing the social construction of criminality
Factor Explanation Example
Historical change Laws can change as attitudes and policies develop Decriminalisation of certain consensual same-sex acts
Geographical location Different countries have different criminal laws Cannabis laws vary by jurisdiction
Culture and social values Societies differ in accepted behaviour and moral expectations Attitudes towards alcohol
Religion Religious beliefs may influence legal rules and social norms Restrictions on alcohol in some countries
Political power Governments decide what conduct should be criminalised Laws regulating protests
Social change Campaigns, research and public attitudes may lead to reform Recognition of coercive control
Circumstances Context can determine whether conduct is lawful Self-defence compared with unlawful assault
2. Key concepts
Criminalisation: The process through which conduct becomes a criminal offence.
Decriminalisation: Removing criminal penalties from behaviour previously treated as an offence.
Social norms: Shared expectations about acceptable behaviour.
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Social construction: The process through which meanings, classifications and expectations develop through social
interaction, institutions and historical circumstances.
Legal jurisdiction: The geographical or legal area within which particular laws apply.
The main point is that the legal definition of crime is not identical across every society or historical period. However, this does
not mean that the harms caused by criminal behaviour are imaginary or that all conduct is morally equivalent.
The official WJEC specification explicitly identifies four areas for AC 1.2: variation between cultures, change over time,
differences according to circumstances, and reasons laws differ by place, time and culture.
3. Original Exam-Style Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 2 — AC 1.2
Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
Introduction
The social construction of criminality refers to the idea that societies determine what behaviour is criminal through laws,
shared values and political decisions.
Criminal behaviour is not defined identically across every society. An action may be illegal in one country but legal in another.
Similarly, laws can change over time as social attitudes, scientific knowledge and political priorities develop.
The social construction of criminality can therefore be explained by examining cultural differences, historical changes,
geographical location and the circumstances in which actions occur.
1. How Laws Change Between Cultures
Different societies may have different beliefs about morality, religion, personal freedom and acceptable behaviour.
These beliefs can influence the criminal laws adopted within a particular country.
For example, alcohol consumption is lawful for adults in many countries, subject to restrictions. In some other jurisdictions,
the sale, possession or consumption of alcohol is prohibited or tightly controlled.
This illustrates how conduct considered acceptable in one society may be criminalised in another.
However, cultures are not uniform. People within the same society may disagree strongly about particular laws.
Explanation: Criminality is socially constructed because lawmakers operate within political and cultural environments that
influence which behaviours are prohibited.
2. How Laws Change Over Time
Behaviour considered criminal in the past may become legal following changes in public attitudes and legislation.
For example, the Sexual Offences Act 1967 partially decriminalised consensual sexual activity between men in private in
England and Wales. The reform applied under restrictions that have subsequently changed.
Previously, such behaviour could attract criminal punishment even when conducted privately between consenting adults.
The reform demonstrated how changing social attitudes and political decisions can alter criminal law.
Another example is the introduction of the offence of controlling or coercive behaviour in intimate or family relationships
under section 76 of the Serious Crime Act 2015 in England and Wales.
This legislation helped recognise patterns of controlling behaviour as a specific criminal offence when the statutory conditions
are met.
Explanation: These examples demonstrate that criminal laws evolve as societies reconsider how particular behaviours
should be treated.
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3. How Laws Differ According to Place
The criminal status of behaviour may depend on the legal jurisdiction in which it occurs.
For example, cannabis laws differ between countries and between states within certain countries.
Some jurisdictions permit regulated adult possession and use, while others criminalise possession except in limited
authorised circumstances.
The same conduct can therefore attract different legal consequences depending on where it occurs.
This does not necessarily mean that the behaviour itself changes. Instead, different governments have adopted different legal
approaches.
Explanation: Criminality is socially constructed because legal systems establish different boundaries between lawful and
unlawful conduct.
4. How Circumstances Affect the Application of Laws
Whether an action is criminal may depend on the circumstances in which it occurs.
For example, deliberately using force against another person may amount to assault.
However, reasonable force used in lawful self-defence may be legally justified when the relevant conditions are satisfied.
The distinction depends on factors including the threat faced, the circumstances as the person believed them to be and
whether the force used was reasonable.
Similarly, possession of certain controlled substances can be lawful in authorised medical or professional circumstances but
unlawful when the legal requirements are not met.
Explanation: These examples demonstrate that the law considers context, intention and legal justification rather than judging
every physical action identically.
5. Why Laws Differ Between Societies
There are several reasons why different societies adopt different criminal laws.
Cultural values: Societies may differ in their beliefs about personal behaviour and social responsibilities.
Religion: Religious traditions may influence legislation, especially where religious and state institutions are closely
connected.
Political power: Governments and lawmakers determine which behaviours are prohibited, regulated or permitted.
Historical developments: Existing laws may reflect historical events, traditions and earlier political decisions.
Social campaigns: Public-awareness campaigns and social movements may influence debates about criminalisation,
decriminalisation and legal reform.
Changing knowledge: Research and improved understanding of social harm can encourage lawmakers to reconsider existing
rules.
These influences help explain why criminal law is not identical across societies.
6. Media and Campaigns for Change
Media representation can influence public opinion by drawing attention to particular offences or social problems.
For example, widespread reporting about domestic abuse can increase awareness of coercive behaviour and encourage
discussion about legal protection.
Campaigns for change may also challenge existing laws and encourage reform.
However, media attention does not automatically lead to changes in legislation. Governments must follow the relevant legal
and political processes.
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Explanation: Media and public campaigns contribute to social construction by influencing the beliefs and debates that
surround criminal behaviour.
Conclusion
The social construction of criminality demonstrates that definitions of crime are influenced by social values, culture, political
decisions and historical developments.
Laws can differ between geographical locations, change over time and apply differently according to the circumstances of an
incident.
Examples involving alcohol laws, cannabis regulation, historical reforms to sexual offences legislation and the criminalisation
of controlling or coercive behaviour illustrate these differences.
Overall, criminality is socially constructed because societies create and revise legal boundaries governing behaviour.
However, this does not mean all criminal conduct is harmless or that legal changes automatically eliminate the harm
associated with particular actions.
4. Worked Examples: Apply the Concept
Situation Explanation
Alcohol is permitted in one country but prohibited in another Cultural, religious and legal differences
Conduct previously criminalised is later decriminalised Laws change over time
Cannabis possession is treated differently by two jurisdictions Geographical differences
Force used in an attack compared with reasonable self-defence Legal circumstances determine liability
Coercive control becomes a specific criminal offence Changing recognition of harm and legal reform
The 2015 coercive-control offence is established in the
Serious Crime Act 2015, section 76
.
5. Practice Exam Questions
Question 1. Explain one way criminality is socially constructed.
3 marks
Criminality is socially constructed because laws are made and changed by societies. For example, conduct previously
prohibited can be decriminalised through legislation as social attitudes and political decisions change. Therefore, the same
behaviour may have a different legal status at different times.
Question 2. Explain how circumstances can affect whether an action is criminal.
4 marks
Question 3. Explain two reasons why laws differ between countries.
6 marks
These are original practice questions with illustrative marks, not questions from an official WJEC examination paper or an
official marking scheme.
6. Exam Strategy
A strong explanation should follow this pattern:
Identify the influence → give a specific example → explain why it demonstrates that criminality is socially constructed.
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Do not simply write that laws differ between countries. Explain why they differ, such as cultural expectations, political
decisions or changing attitudes.
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
AC 2.1 — Describe Biological Theories of Criminality
Introduction
Biological theories of criminality attempt to explain offending behaviour through inherited characteristics, physical
development, genetics and the functioning of the brain.
Early biological criminologists believed that criminals could be identified through particular physical characteristics. Modern
biological approaches examine more complex relationships between genetic influences, neurological processes and
environmental factors.
For AC 2.1, students should understand the principal biological explanations, the theorists associated with them and the
research used to support or question their claims.
1. Main biological theories
Theory Key researcher Main explanation
Atavistic theory Cesare Lombroso Criminality associated with supposedly inherited, primitive physical characteristics
Somatotype theory William Sheldon Body types associated with different personality characteristics and offending
Genetic explanations Twin and adoption researchers Inherited variation may contribute to differences in offending risk
Chromosomal explanations Researchers investigating XYY syndrome Historical attempts to link extra Y chromosomes with criminality
Neurological explanations Adrian Raine and other neuroscientists Differences in brain function may be associated with aggression and impulse control
Important: Biological explanations describe theories and statistical associations. They do not establish that a person's
appearance, genes or brain characteristics make them destined to commit crime.
2. Lombroso's Atavistic Theory
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)
Lombroso argued that some offenders were born criminals who displayed physical characteristics supposedly resembling
earlier stages of human evolution.
Independent Student Revision Guide • Original Practice Materials
WJEC LEVEL 3 APPLIED DIPLOMA IN CRIMINOLOGY — UNIT 2
INDEPENDENT STUDENT STUDY GUIDE | ORIGINAL PRACTICE MATERIAL | 2026–2027
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
Complete Study Guide | Original Model Answers, Revision Notes & Exam Preparation | Updated 2026–2027
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 — Understand Social Constructions of Criminality
AC 1.1 — Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
AC 1.2 — Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 — Know Theories of Criminality
AC 2.1 — Describe Biological Theories of Criminality
AC 2.2 — Describe Individualistic Theories of Criminality
AC 2.3 — Describe Sociological Theories of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 — Understand Causes of Criminality
AC 3.1 — Analyse Situations of Criminality
AC 3.2 — Evaluate the Effectiveness of Criminological Theories to Explain Causes of Criminality
LEARNING OUTCOME 4 — Understand Causes of Policy Change
AC 4.1 — Assess the Use of Criminological Theories in Informing Policy Development
AC 4.2 — Explain How Social Changes Affect Policy Development
AC 4.3 — Discuss How Campaigns Affect Policy Making
UNIT 2 COVERAGE: 4 Learning Outcomes | 10 Assessment Criteria
STUDY FEATURES: Detailed Revision Notes • Original Exam-Style Model Answers • Criminological Theories • Research
Studies • Real-World Case Examples • Comparison Tables • Practice Questions • Explained Answers • Exam Strategies
ASSESSMENT TYPE: Externally Examined Unit
AC 1.1 — Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Introduction
Criminal behaviour and deviance are closely connected concepts, but they are not identical.
Criminal behaviour involves breaking laws established by the state, while deviance involves breaking social norms,
expectations or accepted standards of behaviour.
Some actions are both criminal and deviant, whereas others may be deviant without being criminal.
Understanding these differences helps criminologists explain why society labels certain behaviours as unacceptable and how
these judgements can change.
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1. Key differences
Feature Criminal behaviour Deviance
Definition Behaviour that breaks criminal law Behaviour that violates social norms
Who defines it? Lawmakers and the legal system Society, communities and social groups
Consequences Criminal penalties may apply Informal sanctions, criticism or exclusion
Enforcement Police, courts and other legal authorities Families, peers, institutions and communities
Example Theft, assault, fraud Unusual dress, violating social customs
Can it change? Yes, through legal reforms Yes, through changing cultural values
Relationship Some crimes are also considered deviant Some deviant actions are not criminal
The official WJEC specification requires students to understand legal and social definitions, formal and informal sanctions,
examples of both crime and deviance, and the consequences of each.
2. Original Exam-Style Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 2 — AC 1.1
Compare Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Introduction
Criminal behaviour and deviance are closely related concepts in criminology. Both involve behaviour that may be considered
unacceptable within society. However, they differ in how they are defined, who determines whether they are unacceptable and
the consequences for individuals who engage in them.
Criminal behaviour breaks laws established by the state, whereas deviance involves behaviour that violates social norms,
moral codes or values.
1. Criminal Behaviour
Criminal behaviour refers to actions or omissions that break criminal law and may result in legal sanctions.
Examples include murder, assault, theft, fraud and certain drug offences.
A legal definition of crime focuses on whether an action violates a criminal law. A social definition focuses on behaviour
considered wrongful or harmful by society.
For example, stealing another person's property is a criminal offence because it breaches the law. It is also generally
considered morally unacceptable because it interferes with another person's property rights.
Criminal behaviour is investigated and dealt with through formal institutions such as the police and courts.
Possible sanctions include fines, community sentences and imprisonment.
2. Deviance
Deviance refers to behaviour that violates the norms, values or expectations of a particular society or social group.
Social norms are unwritten expectations about how people should behave. Values are beliefs about what is considered
important, desirable or acceptable.
For example, wearing unusually informal clothing to a formal ceremony might be considered deviant because it breaks social
expectations.
However, this behaviour would not normally be a criminal offence.
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Deviance can also involve more serious behaviour, such as bullying or discriminatory conduct. Depending on the
circumstances, some forms may also be criminal.
Consequences of deviance can include criticism, ridicule, stigma and social exclusion.
3. Similarities Between Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Similarity 1: Both involve breaking established rules or expectations.
Criminal behaviour breaches legal rules, while deviance breaches social expectations.
For example, theft breaks criminal law and commonly violates social values concerning honesty and respect for property.
Similarity 2: Both can result in sanctions.
Criminal behaviour can lead to formal legal punishment, while deviance can produce informal consequences such as
disapproval or exclusion.
Some deviant conduct can also attract formal sanctions when it breaches institutional rules or criminal law.
Similarity 3: Both are influenced by social values.
Laws and social norms can reflect beliefs about acceptable behaviour.
As attitudes change, societies may reconsider whether particular conduct should be punished, tolerated or accepted.
4. Differences Between Criminal Behaviour and Deviance
Difference 1: Criminal behaviour is legally defined, whereas deviance is socially defined.
An action becomes criminal when it breaches the relevant law.
Deviance depends on the norms of a particular social group or community.
For example, theft is a criminal offence, whereas speaking loudly in a quiet library may be considered deviant without being
illegal.
Difference 2: The consequences are different.
Criminal behaviour may result in police investigation, prosecution and court-imposed punishment.
Deviance may lead to disapproval, embarrassment, rejection or informal social sanctions.
For example, someone convicted of theft may receive a legal penalty, while someone who violates a dress code may be
criticised or asked to change clothing.
Difference 3: Deviance can be more subjective.
The criminal status of an action depends on the law applicable at the time and place.
Deviance is more dependent on social context.
For example, clothing considered inappropriate in one community may be accepted in another.
5. Behaviour That Is Both Criminal and Deviant
Some behaviour is both illegal and widely considered socially unacceptable.
Examples include murder, sexual assault and robbery.
Murder is criminal because it breaks criminal law and may result in severe punishment.
It is also deviant because it violates strongly held social values concerning human life and safety.
Therefore, the offender may experience both formal legal sanctions and informal social condemnation.
6. Criminal but Not Necessarily Considered Deviant
Some criminal actions may not attract strong social disapproval.
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For example, exceeding a speed limit is a criminal offence, but some social groups may regard minor speeding as relatively
normal.
This does not mean speeding is harmless or acceptable. It demonstrates that legal rules and informal social attitudes do not
always coincide.
An individual may therefore commit an offence without being strongly labelled as deviant by their peers.
7. Deviant but Not Criminal
Some behaviour breaks social expectations without violating criminal law.
Examples may include unusual styles of dress, ignoring certain etiquette rules or refusing to follow informal community
traditions.
For example, attending a formal event in casual clothing may attract criticism but would not ordinarily result in prosecution.
This shows that social disapproval does not automatically make behaviour illegal.
8. Formal and Informal Sanctions
Formal sanctions are penalties imposed by authorised institutions or through established legal or disciplinary procedures.
Examples include imprisonment, fines and certain institutional disciplinary measures.
Informal sanctions arise through everyday social interactions.
Examples include criticism, ridicule, exclusion and loss of social approval.
Both forms of sanction encourage conformity, but they operate through different mechanisms.
Conclusion
Criminal behaviour and deviance are related because both concern actions considered unacceptable according to particular
rules or expectations.
However, criminal behaviour is defined by law, whereas deviance is defined by social norms, values and moral expectations.
Some actions, such as murder, are both criminal and deviant. Other actions, such as unusual clothing choices, may be
deviant without being illegal.
Certain criminal offences may also be regarded as relatively normal by some social groups.
Overall, the main difference is that criminality depends on legal rules, while deviance depends on social expectations.
Both concepts are important for understanding social control and why people respond differently to particular
behaviours.
3. Visual Comparison
The relationship between crime and deviance
4. Practice Exam Questions
Question 1. Which statement best explains the difference between crime and deviance?
A. Both must result in imprisonment
B. Crime breaks the law; deviance breaches social norms
C. All deviant behaviour is criminal
D. Crime is defined only by public opinion
Question 2. Which example is most clearly deviant but not criminal?
A. Robbery
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B. Burglary
C. Fraud
D. Wearing casual clothes to a formal ceremony
Question 3. Which is an example of a formal criminal sanction?
A. A court-imposed fine
B. Being criticised by friends
C. Being socially ignored
D. Receiving an unpleasant nickname
5. Exam Strategy
For AC 1.1, comparison is essential. Avoid simply defining crime and deviance separately. Explain their similarities and
differences using paired examples and distinguish formal from informal sanctions. The WJEC knowledge organiser specifically
highlights these areas.
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
AC 1.2 — Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
WJEC Level 3 Applied Diploma in Criminology | Detailed Revision Notes & Original Exam-Style Model Answer | 2026–2027
Introduction
The social construction of criminality is the idea that society influences which behaviours are defined as criminal. Laws are
created and changed by people and institutions, reflecting social values, political decisions, historical circumstances and
cultural expectations.
An action may therefore be illegal in one country but legal in another, or criminal at one point in history but permitted at a later
date.
For AC 1.2, students need to understand how definitions of crime vary according to time, place, culture and social
circumstances.
1. Factors influencing the social construction of criminality
Factor Explanation Example
Historical change Laws can change as attitudes and policies develop Decriminalisation of certain consensual same-sex acts
Geographical location Different countries have different criminal laws Cannabis laws vary by jurisdiction
Culture and social values Societies differ in accepted behaviour and moral expectations Attitudes towards alcohol
Religion Religious beliefs may influence legal rules and social norms Restrictions on alcohol in some countries
Political power Governments decide what conduct should be criminalised Laws regulating protests
Social change Campaigns, research and public attitudes may lead to reform Recognition of coercive control
Circumstances Context can determine whether conduct is lawful Self-defence compared with unlawful assault
2. Key concepts
Criminalisation: The process through which conduct becomes a criminal offence.
Decriminalisation: Removing criminal penalties from behaviour previously treated as an offence.
Social norms: Shared expectations about acceptable behaviour.
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Social construction: The process through which meanings, classifications and expectations develop through social
interaction, institutions and historical circumstances.
Legal jurisdiction: The geographical or legal area within which particular laws apply.
The main point is that the legal definition of crime is not identical across every society or historical period. However, this does
not mean that the harms caused by criminal behaviour are imaginary or that all conduct is morally equivalent.
The official WJEC specification explicitly identifies four areas for AC 1.2: variation between cultures, change over time,
differences according to circumstances, and reasons laws differ by place, time and culture.
3. Original Exam-Style Model Answer
CRIMINOLOGY UNIT 2 — AC 1.2
Explain the Social Construction of Criminality
Introduction
The social construction of criminality refers to the idea that societies determine what behaviour is criminal through laws,
shared values and political decisions.
Criminal behaviour is not defined identically across every society. An action may be illegal in one country but legal in another.
Similarly, laws can change over time as social attitudes, scientific knowledge and political priorities develop.
The social construction of criminality can therefore be explained by examining cultural differences, historical changes,
geographical location and the circumstances in which actions occur.
1. How Laws Change Between Cultures
Different societies may have different beliefs about morality, religion, personal freedom and acceptable behaviour.
These beliefs can influence the criminal laws adopted within a particular country.
For example, alcohol consumption is lawful for adults in many countries, subject to restrictions. In some other jurisdictions,
the sale, possession or consumption of alcohol is prohibited or tightly controlled.
This illustrates how conduct considered acceptable in one society may be criminalised in another.
However, cultures are not uniform. People within the same society may disagree strongly about particular laws.
Explanation: Criminality is socially constructed because lawmakers operate within political and cultural environments that
influence which behaviours are prohibited.
2. How Laws Change Over Time
Behaviour considered criminal in the past may become legal following changes in public attitudes and legislation.
For example, the Sexual Offences Act 1967 partially decriminalised consensual sexual activity between men in private in
England and Wales. The reform applied under restrictions that have subsequently changed.
Previously, such behaviour could attract criminal punishment even when conducted privately between consenting adults.
The reform demonstrated how changing social attitudes and political decisions can alter criminal law.
Another example is the introduction of the offence of controlling or coercive behaviour in intimate or family relationships
under section 76 of the Serious Crime Act 2015 in England and Wales.
This legislation helped recognise patterns of controlling behaviour as a specific criminal offence when the statutory conditions
are met.
Explanation: These examples demonstrate that criminal laws evolve as societies reconsider how particular behaviours
should be treated.
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, WJEC CRIMINOLOGY | UNIT 2 — CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
3. How Laws Differ According to Place
The criminal status of behaviour may depend on the legal jurisdiction in which it occurs.
For example, cannabis laws differ between countries and between states within certain countries.
Some jurisdictions permit regulated adult possession and use, while others criminalise possession except in limited
authorised circumstances.
The same conduct can therefore attract different legal consequences depending on where it occurs.
This does not necessarily mean that the behaviour itself changes. Instead, different governments have adopted different legal
approaches.
Explanation: Criminality is socially constructed because legal systems establish different boundaries between lawful and
unlawful conduct.
4. How Circumstances Affect the Application of Laws
Whether an action is criminal may depend on the circumstances in which it occurs.
For example, deliberately using force against another person may amount to assault.
However, reasonable force used in lawful self-defence may be legally justified when the relevant conditions are satisfied.
The distinction depends on factors including the threat faced, the circumstances as the person believed them to be and
whether the force used was reasonable.
Similarly, possession of certain controlled substances can be lawful in authorised medical or professional circumstances but
unlawful when the legal requirements are not met.
Explanation: These examples demonstrate that the law considers context, intention and legal justification rather than judging
every physical action identically.
5. Why Laws Differ Between Societies
There are several reasons why different societies adopt different criminal laws.
Cultural values: Societies may differ in their beliefs about personal behaviour and social responsibilities.
Religion: Religious traditions may influence legislation, especially where religious and state institutions are closely
connected.
Political power: Governments and lawmakers determine which behaviours are prohibited, regulated or permitted.
Historical developments: Existing laws may reflect historical events, traditions and earlier political decisions.
Social campaigns: Public-awareness campaigns and social movements may influence debates about criminalisation,
decriminalisation and legal reform.
Changing knowledge: Research and improved understanding of social harm can encourage lawmakers to reconsider existing
rules.
These influences help explain why criminal law is not identical across societies.
6. Media and Campaigns for Change
Media representation can influence public opinion by drawing attention to particular offences or social problems.
For example, widespread reporting about domestic abuse can increase awareness of coercive behaviour and encourage
discussion about legal protection.
Campaigns for change may also challenge existing laws and encourage reform.
However, media attention does not automatically lead to changes in legislation. Governments must follow the relevant legal
and political processes.
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Explanation: Media and public campaigns contribute to social construction by influencing the beliefs and debates that
surround criminal behaviour.
Conclusion
The social construction of criminality demonstrates that definitions of crime are influenced by social values, culture, political
decisions and historical developments.
Laws can differ between geographical locations, change over time and apply differently according to the circumstances of an
incident.
Examples involving alcohol laws, cannabis regulation, historical reforms to sexual offences legislation and the criminalisation
of controlling or coercive behaviour illustrate these differences.
Overall, criminality is socially constructed because societies create and revise legal boundaries governing behaviour.
However, this does not mean all criminal conduct is harmless or that legal changes automatically eliminate the harm
associated with particular actions.
4. Worked Examples: Apply the Concept
Situation Explanation
Alcohol is permitted in one country but prohibited in another Cultural, religious and legal differences
Conduct previously criminalised is later decriminalised Laws change over time
Cannabis possession is treated differently by two jurisdictions Geographical differences
Force used in an attack compared with reasonable self-defence Legal circumstances determine liability
Coercive control becomes a specific criminal offence Changing recognition of harm and legal reform
The 2015 coercive-control offence is established in the
Serious Crime Act 2015, section 76
.
5. Practice Exam Questions
Question 1. Explain one way criminality is socially constructed.
3 marks
Criminality is socially constructed because laws are made and changed by societies. For example, conduct previously
prohibited can be decriminalised through legislation as social attitudes and political decisions change. Therefore, the same
behaviour may have a different legal status at different times.
Question 2. Explain how circumstances can affect whether an action is criminal.
4 marks
Question 3. Explain two reasons why laws differ between countries.
6 marks
These are original practice questions with illustrative marks, not questions from an official WJEC examination paper or an
official marking scheme.
6. Exam Strategy
A strong explanation should follow this pattern:
Identify the influence → give a specific example → explain why it demonstrates that criminality is socially constructed.
Independent Student Revision Guide • Original Practice Materials
, WJEC CRIMINOLOGY | UNIT 2 — CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
Do not simply write that laws differ between countries. Explain why they differ, such as cultural expectations, political
decisions or changing attitudes.
UNIT 2 — Criminological Theories
AC 2.1 — Describe Biological Theories of Criminality
Introduction
Biological theories of criminality attempt to explain offending behaviour through inherited characteristics, physical
development, genetics and the functioning of the brain.
Early biological criminologists believed that criminals could be identified through particular physical characteristics. Modern
biological approaches examine more complex relationships between genetic influences, neurological processes and
environmental factors.
For AC 2.1, students should understand the principal biological explanations, the theorists associated with them and the
research used to support or question their claims.
1. Main biological theories
Theory Key researcher Main explanation
Atavistic theory Cesare Lombroso Criminality associated with supposedly inherited, primitive physical characteristics
Somatotype theory William Sheldon Body types associated with different personality characteristics and offending
Genetic explanations Twin and adoption researchers Inherited variation may contribute to differences in offending risk
Chromosomal explanations Researchers investigating XYY syndrome Historical attempts to link extra Y chromosomes with criminality
Neurological explanations Adrian Raine and other neuroscientists Differences in brain function may be associated with aggression and impulse control
Important: Biological explanations describe theories and statistical associations. They do not establish that a person's
appearance, genes or brain characteristics make them destined to commit crime.
2. Lombroso's Atavistic Theory
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)
Lombroso argued that some offenders were born criminals who displayed physical characteristics supposedly resembling
earlier stages of human evolution.
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