Test Bank for Essentials of Cultural Anthro-pology 3rd Edition by Bailey 2

Test Bank for Essentials of Cultural Anthropology 3rd Edition by Bailey 2 CHAPTER 2 CULTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 2, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the anthropological meaning of culture and its complexities. 2. Explain why it is usually mistaken to equate “culture” with “nation” or “society.” 3. Discuss the nonobvious components of cultural knowledge and their importance. 4. Evaluate the importance of culture to human life. KEY TERMS culture (22) cultural identity (23) subculture (23) enculturation (socialization) (24) patterns of behavior (26) role (27) norm (27) values (28) symbol (30) cultural construction (31) world view (34) CHAPTER SUMMARY Anthropologists use the concept of culture to understand the diversity of human experience. Culture is the shared, socially learned knowledge and patterns of behavior that are unique to a group of people. Culture is not only essential for humanity, but it is also the key to our successful adaptation in a wide variety of environments. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 19 Though definitions vary widely, anthropologists generally agree on certain characteristics of culture: it is learned, shared, has a profound impact on the group of people who share it, and is central to understanding the different ways in which groups of people act, think, and feel. In a narrow sense, culture can be defined as a mental phenomenon; material artifacts and behaviors, for example, are products of culture in this sense. Broadly defined, culture refers to the way of life of a given group of people and explains the distinctiveness of the group. Culture is shared by definition, and always socially learned. Biological differences do not explain cultural differences; they are independent of each other. Culture is passed from one generation to the next, and transmitted from place to place at any given time. Attitudes, beliefs, assumptions about the world and other socially learned information that is stored in the mind, is called cultural knowledge. The five components of cultural knowledge are: norms, values, symbols, constructions of reality (including the natural and social worlds), and world views through which reality is interpreted. Culture knowledge is learned through enculturation. It is necessary for human existence because it enables us to adapt to our environments and provides the basis for human life, as well as shaping our view of reality. LECTURE OUTLINE CULTURE I. A Definition of Culture a. Culture is both a concept and a word. b. The modern idea of culture developed in the nineteenth century. c. All human groups possess culture to the same degree. d. Anthropological definitions of culture share certain features. i. Culture is learned from other people while growing up in a particular society or group. ii. Culture is widely shared by the members of that society or group. iii. Culture profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people. iv. Culture in large part accounts for differences in how people act, think, and feel. e. Narrow concepts of culture see it as an ideational or mental phenomenon. f. Broad concepts of culture see it as the whole way of life of a group of people. g. Even within a culture, behavior varies between individuals. h. Culture is collective. i. Common cultural identities do not necessarily equate to sameness. ii. Colonialism has produced countries filled with many cultural groups who share a common cultural identity in addition to identifying other cultural affiliations. iii. Subcultures refer to nations whose citizens and residents are culturally diverse.Chapter 2: Mythology 20 i. Culture is socially learned. j. Enculturation is the process by which infants and children socially learn the culture of those around them. k. Culture is not transmitted through genetics or by biological reproduction. l. Any human infant is perfectly capable of learning culture of any human group or biological population. i. The same is true of language acquisition. ii. Cultural and biological differences are largely independent. m. Culture is socially learned through observation, imitation, communication, and inference. i. Every people and nation has adopted things from others. II. Cultural knowledge a. Patterns of behavior promote commonality. i. Roles are associated with privileges and obligations. ii. Norms are associated with shared ideas and expectations of how people ought to act in a given situation. b. Cultural Values c. These are people’s beliefs about the goals or ways of living that are deemed desirable. III. Cultural symbols may be objects or behaviors or events. a. These are learned along with other attributes of culture. i. Arbitrary symbols have no inherent quality. 1. A wink in one culture may have no meaning in another. ii. Conventional symbols have meaning only because people agree they do. 1. A red light at an intersection means stop only because people obey. b. Cultural constructions of reality i. Cultural knowledge that includes shared ways of perceiving the world. 1. There are constructions regarding the natural world. 2. There are constructions about social reality. c. Cultural world views i. A world view is the way a people interpret reality and events, including their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them. 1. Some cultures believe in things that others do not. 2. Most world views make a connection between the “natural” and “supernatural.” 3. The way people view their place in nature is part of their world view.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 21 IV. Culture, Biology, and Human Life a. Culture is necessary for human existence in at least three specific ways. i. One, culture provides the knowledge we need to adapt to our surroundings. ii. Two, culture is the basis for human social life. iii. Three, culture profoundly influences our views of reality. SUGGESTED SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES Culture and Hominids Discuss how definitions of culture might or might not apply to other hominid species. Consider the consequences of assuming only modern humans have culture and culture only exists in modern humans on Homo erectus or Australopithecus afarensis and others. Discuss the possibility culture arose suddenly in one species or that various components of culture arose at different times throughout prehistory. Culture and Nonhuman Primates Discuss the cognitive capacities of monkeys and apes. Potato washing behavior in Japanese monkeys is a famous example of social learning still debated. Chimpanzee mothers may exhibit teaching their infants the correct technique for cracking open palm nuts with stone hammers. Students are often amazed by the ability of chimpanzees to use symbols and other properties of language. Detail the experiments done with Kanzi, the bonobo chimpanzee. One point to make is how the results of similarities between chimpanzee or non-human primate “culture” and human culture should not be too surprising, given the close degree of shared genetic material between chimpanzees and humans. The Importance of Culture Discuss the effects of symbolic thought in humans. For example, consider how symbolic thought helps us adapt to the environment. Since it is often stated that human cultural transmission of adaptations occurs at a faster rate than genetic adaptations, explain the implications that human culture transcends biological heritage. Consider if symbolic thought has reduced human biological diversity. Illustrate how the human global distribution is unusual among animals and yet we belong to a single species. Meaning Behind Behavior Cross-cultural misunderstandings can occur if individuals assume that any given behavior has the same meaning universally. Provide examples of similar behaviors that might have different meanings. One example is an affectionate pat on the head of an American child is received as disgusting by a Balinese child. Another facet to explore is how different behaviors can have similar meanings, such as different ways to show respect. An example of this would be assuming a sitting position in the presence of an African emir, but standing in the presence of the President of the United States.Chapter 2: Mythology 22 The Importance of Symbols Most anthropologists agree that the human capacity to symbolize and attach arbitrary meanings to objects, events, and so forth is what makes culture possible. Devote part of a lecture to how the culture that humans learn, share, and experience, actually relies on the ability to understand and interpret the world using symbols whose meanings are socially created and learned. Provide some examples of verbal, graphic, and behavioral symbols. Engage students by encouraging them to suggest some of their own.18 Test Bank for Essentials of Cultural Anthropology 3rd Edition by Bailey 2 CHAPTER 2 CULTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 2, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the anthropological meaning of culture and its complexities. 2. Explain why it is usually mistaken to equate “culture” with “nation” or “society.” 3. Discuss the nonobvious components of cultural knowledge and their importance. 4. Evaluate the importance of culture to human life. KEY TERMS culture (22) cultural identity (23) subculture (23) enculturation (socialization) (24) patterns of behavior (26) role (27) norm (27) values (28) symbol (30) cultural construction (31) world view (34) CHAPTER SUMMARY Anthropologists use the concept of culture to understand the diversity of human experience. Culture is the shared, socially learned knowledge and patterns of behavior that are unique to a group of people. Culture is not only essential for humanity, but it is also the key to our successful adaptation in a wide variety of environments. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 19 Though definitions vary widely, anthropologists generally agree on certain characteristics of culture: it is learned, shared, has a profound impact on the group of people who share it, and is central to understanding the different ways in which groups of people act, think, and feel. In a narrow sense, culture can be defined as a mental phenomenon; material artifacts and behaviors, for example, are products of culture in this sense. Broadly defined, culture refers to the way of life of a given group of people and explains the distinctiveness of the group. Culture is shared by definition, and always socially learned. Biological differences do not explain cultural differences; they are independent of each other. Culture is passed from one generation to the next, and transmitted from place to place at any given time. Attitudes, beliefs, assumptions about the world and other socially learned information that is stored in the mind, is called cultural knowledge. The five components of cultural knowledge are: norms, values, symbols, constructions of reality (including the natural and social worlds), and world views through which reality is interpreted. Culture knowledge is learned through enculturation. It is necessary for human existence because it enables us to adapt to our environments and provides the basis for human life, as well as shaping our view of reality. LECTURE OUTLINE CULTURE I. A Definition of Culture a. Culture is both a concept and a word. b. The modern idea of culture developed in the nineteenth century. c. All human groups possess culture to the same degree. d. Anthropological definitions of culture share certain features. i. Culture is learned from other people while growing up in a particular society or group. ii. Culture is widely shared by the members of that society or group. iii. Culture profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people. iv. Culture in large part accounts for differences in how people act, think, and feel. e. Narrow concepts of culture see it as an ideational or mental phenomenon. f. Broad concepts of culture see it as the whole way of life of a group of people. g. Even within a culture, behavior varies between individuals. h. Culture is collective. i. Common cultural identities do not necessarily equate to sameness. ii. Colonialism has produced countries filled with many cultural groups who share a common cultural identity in addition to identifying other cultural affiliations. iii. Subcultures refer to nations whose citizens and residents are culturally diverse.Chapter 2: Mythology 20 i. Culture is socially learned. j. Enculturation is the process by which infants and children socially learn the culture of those around them. k. Culture is not transmitted through genetics or by biological reproduction. l. Any human infant is perfectly capable of learning culture of any human group or biological population. i. The same is true of language acquisition. ii. Cultural and biological differences are largely independent. m. Culture is socially learned through observation, imitation, communication, and inference. i. Every people and nation has adopted things from others. II. Cultural knowledge a. Patterns of behavior promote commonality. i. Roles are associated with privileges and obligations. ii. Norms are associated with shared ideas and expectations of how people ought to act in a given situation. b. Cultural Values c. These are people’s beliefs about the goals or ways of living that are deemed desirable. III. Cultural symbols may be objects or behaviors or events. a. These are learned along with other attributes of culture. i. Arbitrary symbols have no inherent quality. 1. A wink in one culture may have no meaning in another. ii. Conventional symbols have meaning only because people agree they do. 1. A red light at an intersection means stop only because people obey. b. Cultural constructions of reality i. Cultural knowledge that includes shared ways of perceiving the world. 1. There are constructions regarding the natural world. 2. There are constructions about social reality. c. Cultural world views i. A world view is the way a people interpret reality and events, including their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them. 1. Some cultures believe in things that others do not. 2. Most world views make a connection between the “natural” and “supernatural.” 3. The way people view their place in nature is part of their world view.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 21 IV. Culture, Biology, and Human Life a. Culture is necessary for human existence in at least three specific ways. i. One, culture provides the knowledge we need to adapt to our surroundings. ii. Two, culture is the basis for human social life. iii. Three, culture profoundly influences our views of reality. SUGGESTED SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES Culture and Hominids Discuss how definitions of culture might or might not apply to other hominid species. Consider the consequences of assuming only modern humans have culture and culture only exists in modern humans on Homo erectus or Australopithecus afarensis and others. Discuss the possibility culture arose suddenly in one species or that various components of culture arose at different times throughout prehistory. Culture and Nonhuman Primates Discuss the cognitive capacities of monkeys and apes. Potato washing behavior in Japanese monkeys is a famous example of social learning still debated. Chimpanzee mothers may exhibit teaching their infants the correct technique for cracking open palm nuts with stone hammers. Students are often amazed by the ability of chimpanzees to use symbols and other properties of language. Detail the experiments done with Kanzi, the bonobo chimpanzee. One point to make is how the results of similarities between chimpanzee or non-human primate “culture” and human culture should not be too surprising, given the close degree of shared genetic material between chimpanzees and humans. The Importance of Culture Discuss the effects of symbolic thought in humans. For example, consider how symbolic thought helps us adapt to the environment. Since it is often stated that human cultural transmission of adaptations occurs at a faster rate than genetic adaptations, explain the implications that human culture transcends biological heritage. Consider if symbolic thought has reduced human biological diversity. Illustrate how the human global distribution is unusual among animals and yet we belong to a single species. Meaning Behind Behavior Cross-cultural misunderstandings can occur if individuals assume that any given behavior has the same meaning universally. Provide examples of similar behaviors that might have different meanings. One example is an affectionate pat on the head of an American child is received as disgusting by a Balinese child. Another facet to explore is how different behaviors can have similar meanings, such as different ways to show respect. An example of this would be assuming a sitting position in the presence of an African emir, but standing in the presence of the President of the United States.Chapter 2: Mythology 22 The Importance of Symbols Most anthropologists agree that the human capacity to symbolize and attach arbitrary meanings to objects, events, and so forth is what makes culture possible. Devote part of a lecture to how the culture that humans learn, share, and experience, actually relies on the ability to understand and interpret the world using symbols whose meanings are socially created and learned. Provide some examples of verbal, graphic, and behavioral symbols. Engage students by encouraging them to suggest some of their own. MEDIA SUGGESTIONS Characteristics of Culture, Lesson 2 of the series, Our Diverse World (2:36 minutes, 2008), streamed through Coast Learning Systems. This segment uses the city of Oaxaca, Mexico, to explore the nature of culture and how cultures are studied. In addition to visually defining the characteristics of culture, this segment explores how culture changes in response to outside forces. A bio-cultural approach is also explained. Full length version available with purchase. Culture Shock (3:53 minutes, 2008), streamed from COAST. Somali immigrants create new lives in America but encounter challenges in language and employment, placing additional strain on local community resources. Defining Race, American in Black and White, Part 1 (7:17 minutes, 2003) and Part 2 (5:11 minutes, 2003), streamed from COAST, courtesy of ABC News. The use of genetic testing to evaluate cultural affiliation creates challenges in identity. Dead Birds (83 minutes, 1963) preview available through Documentary Educational Resources. This classic ethnographic film depicts the life of the Dugum Dani of New Guinea prior to extensive contact with the industrialized world. The practices of Dani warfare and magic are featured. Available for purchase. Holy Ghost People (53 minutes, 1967) An ethnographic film depicting a small sect of Pentecostal Christians in Scrabble Creek, West Virginia, who practice snake handling. This classic ethnographic documentary was made by Peter Adair and may be downloaded from the feature films section of the Internet Archive. STUDENT ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS DISCUSSION QUESTIONSThe Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 23 A Definition of Culture One way to assist students in understanding collective meaning is to ask them what people might mean when they wink. Consider re-reading Geertz’s “Thick Descriptions” in The Interpretation of Cultures for inspiration. Ask students to explain how they “know” the different meanings and how they think they learned them. Detail a misinterpreted wink and share examples of the meanings of winks in other cultures. Cultural Knowledge • Ask students to make a list of personal values and a separate list detailing the values of other Americans. Have the class reflect on any differences between the two lists. Identify the amount of discrepancy and discuss what it means to claim values that are shared. If there are international students present, compare their lists to the others. Discuss any discrepancies and evaluate conclusions about how other peoples perceive Americans. Discuss similarities and consider if there are any universally human values. • Ask students to provide examples of norms that are commonly violated and of situations in which the behavioral expectations of one norm conflicts with those of another. Bring conceptions of norms as a constraint on behavior into the discussion. Culture, Biology and Human Life Engage students in a discussion of the different role of biology and culture in daily life. Biologically, humans need to eat and sleep, to eliminate, and to have sexual intercourse in order to reproduce. How are these biological needs shaped by culture? Bring to the discussion examples of cultural variation in these activities. Ask students to try and explain the variation. Are all cultural differences obvious adaptations to a specific environment? INTERNET READINGS AND EXERCISES 1. Find the definition of culture on the internet and compare it to the one in this chapter. Describe how the definitions differ. Search using “culture” as a key word to see how many entries are returned. Scan results for content other than anthropology. Compare the way culture is addressed in contrast to your anthropological understanding. Be prepared to report your findings in class. Note complete citations for the materials that you used. 2. Search the internet to locate two primate research centers located in the U.S. Explore these websites to determine if non-human primates learn via social learning, as humans do. Note examples that seem to demonstrate social or imitative learning. Relate your findings to the discussion of social learning as a means of enculturation in the text. Determine if you believe non-human primates have culture using supporting evidence and summarize your research, including sources. 3. Use the key words “American cultural values” as search terms to locate at least one internet site that appears trustworthy and credible and note what criteria you used to make this assessment. Locate several more sites to compare descriptions of American cultural values Chapter 2: Mythology 24 and determine in what ways they are different and if there is any consistency in how American values are defined. Make a list of the values and evaluate each based on your own experience. Values are important to the maintenance of culture. Note significant differences and reflect on societal impact. Summarize your ideas and sources for class discussion. 4. Conduct an internet search using the keywords “family” and “values,” along with various geographical areas (e.g. Africa) to prepare a cross-cultural comparison of family values and their influences. Note values that seem different from and similar to your own. Prepare notes and a works cited page, and be prepared to discuss your findings in class. 5. Conduct an internet search using the keywords “culture” and “biology.” Screen results to find those relating to anthropology and develop several examples of the relationship between culture and biology in some aspect of human life. Cite your sources. 6. Instruct students to search for information regarding which animals other than humans demonstrate cultural behavior. Use the keywords, “culture” and “animal” to see if you can find evidentiary examples. Review search results and assess if the term culture is used differently when applied to other animals. Provide examples of animal behavior that might indicate the presence of culture. Summarize your findings to present to class and cite sources. 7. Explore the evolution of culture using the key words “evolution” and “culture.” Describe at least one view of how culture has evolved in humans. Explain what factors are involved in the evolution of culture and which species of early humans evidenced such behavior. Prepare a summary of your research, including a works cited page. CHAPTER 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Chapter Outline I. Introduction a) Evolution is often denigrated as being “only” a theory. i) Evolution is, in fact, a scientific theory that has a wealth of support, and is the unifying theory of the biological sciences. b) Evolution is of central importance to physical anthropology, and evolutionary thought has had a long history of development. i) The earliest human ancestors evolved from a species that lived some 6 to 8 million years ago. ii) All living species are the current result of processes that go back millions of year. iii) We see microevolutionary changes in many species including humans. iv) Some religious views hold that evolutionary statements run counter to biblical teachings. II. A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought a) The discovery of evolutionary principles date back to the sixteen century. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 25 b) Charles Darwin was the first person to explain the basic mechanics of the evolutionary process, although Alfred Russel Wallace independently duplicated Darwin’s ideas. c) Just as technological change is based on past achievements, scientific knowledge builds on previously developed theories. d) The predominant European worldview throughout the Middle Ages was one of stasis and the fixity of the species. i) Christian teachings that God created all life were taken literally. ii) The universe was perceived as being part of the Grand Design. (1) Archbishop James Ussher calculated that the world had been created in 4004 B.C. iii) The belief that the earth was very young, coupled with the notion of fixity of the species was a significant obstacle to the development of evolutionary thought. e) The Scientific Revolution- the development of evolutionary theory came about as a result of a series of discoveries that led to major paradigms shifts. i) As Europeans began to explore the “New World” encountering plants and animals they had never seen before, their awareness of biological diversity expanded. (1) In 1514, Copernicus challenged Aristotle’s idea that the earth was the center of the universe by arguing that the solar system was heliocentric. (2) In the early 17th century, an Italian mathematician named Galileo Galilei supported Copernicus’s views and stated that the earth was a place of motion. (3) The discovery of the principles of physics and the invention of a number of scientific instruments made it possible to investigate many previously misunderstood natural phenomena. f) Precursors to the Theory of Evolution i) John Ray () proposed the concept of species, he was first to recognize that groups of plants and animals could be distinguished from other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce offspring. (1) These groups were termed species. (2) Ray also coined the term genus, recognizing that similar species could be grouped together. ii) Carolus Linnaeus (), a Swedish naturalist and believer in the fixity of species, developed the binomial system of classification plants in his publication, Systema Naturae (1735). (1) He added the taxonomic levels class and order and classified humans as Homo sapiens. iii) Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon () a French naturalist (a.k.a. Comte de Buffon) stressed the importance of change in the universe and the dynamics between nature and living forms in Natural History (1749). iv) Erasmus Darwin (), Charles Darwin’s grandfather, was a freethinking physician who wrote about evolutionary ideas composed in verse but the degree to which he influenced his grandson’s ideas is unclear.Chapter 2: Mythology 26 v) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck () was the first to propose an explanation of the evolutionary process. (1) He proposed a theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics in which an animal’s body parts are altered through use or disuse and these altered characteristics are transmitted to their offspring. (a) Although this is biologically impossible, he nevertheless is credited with being the first to recognize the importance of the interaction between organisms and their environment in the evolutionary process. vi) Georges Cuvier (), a French vertebrate paleontologist, was an opponent of Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas. (1) Cuvier introduced the concept of extinction to explain the existence of hitherto unknown fossil forms. (2) Cuvier was a proponent of catastrophism, the idea that the earth’s geological features are a result of catastrophic events, the most recent being the biblical flood. (a) These events destroyed old life forms, and the newer forms were the result of creation events. vii) Thomas Malthus (), an English clergyman and economist wrote An Essay on the Principles of Population (1798). (1) He noted that population sizes increase exponentially but food supplies remain stable. (a) This concept inspired both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. viii) Charles Lyell (), author of Principles of Geology (), is considered the founder of modern geology. (1) He demonstrated that uniform processes (uniformitarianism) could account for present geological features. (2) His ideas provided the time depth necessary for biological evolution to have occurred. ix) Alfred Russel Wallace () developed his own theory of natural selection after collecting bird and insect specimens in Southeast Asia. (1) He first published some of his ideas in 1855, and then in 1858 Wallace wrote “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type”. x) Mary Anning (), an amateur geologist and famous “fossilist”, unknowingly contributed significantly to the field of paleontology by discovering hundreds of fossils including the first complete fossil of an Ichthyosaurus. III. The Discovery of Natural Selection a) Charles Darwin () proposed the first credible mechanism for evolutionary change, natural selection, in On the Origin of the Species (1859). i) After graduating from Christ’s College, where he studied theology, but also cultivated his interests in natural science and geology, he was recommended to join the five-year expedition of the HMS Beagle. (1) Darwin began the voyage as a believer in the fixity of species, but his observations of, among other things, fossils of giant ancient versions of living animals and varieties of Galápagos finches eventually convinced him to the contrary.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 27 (2) After his return to England in October 1836, he began to formulate his theory of natural selection. (a) He wrote summaries of his ideas in 1842 and 1844, but felt he needed more evidence before he published. (b) He was sent both of Wallace’s papers, and Darwin was spurred to put all of his ideas in writing. (c) Initial reaction to On the Origin of Species was mostly negative, but scientific opinion gradually shifted to Darwin’s favor. b) In Darwin’s Shadow unlike Darwin, Alfred Russell Wallace was born to a family of modest means. i) In 1855 Wallace an article suggesting that current species were descendant of older species and that the appearance of new ones were influenced environmental factors played a role in their evolution. (1) This article caused Lyell and others to urge Darwin to publish his findings but he continued to hesitate. (2) In 1858 Wallace sent Darwin another paper, the title was “On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type” where he described evolution as a process driven by competition in natural selection. (3) Darwin realized that unless he published his work, Wallace would get credit for the theory he had been working on for many years. In December 1859, Darwin completed and published his greatest work “On the Origin of Species.” IV. Natural Selection a) Darwin envisioned it as a process in which individuals with favorable variations survive and reproduce at a higher rate than those with unfavorable variations. The key elements in Darwin’s formulation include: i) The potential for reproductive rates that outpace the rate of increase of food supplies. ii) The presence of biological variation within all species. iii) Constant competition among individuals for survival. iv) Individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. v) The environment “determines” which traits are favorable. vi) Favorable traits are passed on to offspring at a higher rate than non-favorable traits, thus increasing in frequency through time and eventually producing new species. vii) Geographical isolation may lead to the formation of new species. V. Natural Selection in Action a) Natural selection is an empirically studied phenomenon. i) Industrial melanism is a documented case of evolutionary shifts in frequencies of pigmentation patterns in peppered moth populations near Manchester, England. (1) Evolutionary shifts in response to the environment are called adaptations. ii) Natural selection has been demonstrated on the (Galápagos) island of Daphne Major.Chapter 2: Mythology 28 (1) Measurements of beak thickness changes through time among the medium ground finch indicate that thicker-beaked individuals had greater reproductive success during droughts. iii) Natural selection, through the use of antibiotics, is responsible for the increased number of antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms. b) These examples of natural selection in action indicate that certain common principles apply: i) A trait must be inherited to have importance in natural selection. ii) Natural selection cannot occur without variation in inherited characteristics. iii) Fitness is a relative measure that will change as the environment changes. iv) Natural selection can act only on traits that affect reproduction. c) Natural selection can act through not only differential death rates, but also through differential fertility rates. VI. Constraints on Nineteenth Century Evolutionary Theory a) Darwin argued that natural selection acts on variation within species, yet no one could explain the source of this variation. b) Darwin also didn’t know how favorable traits were passed from generation to generation. i) The laws of heredity were unknown, and most believed that parental traits were blended in the offspring. ii) Gregor Mendel had worked out the modern principles of heredity, but his work was not recognized until the beginning of the 20th century. VII. Opposition to Evolution Today a) Darwin’s formulation of evolution was offensive to Christians because it was in conflict with biblical versions of the creation. b) The debate over evolution is far from over, especially in the U.S. and increasingly in several Muslim countries. c) The mechanisms of evolution are complex, and many people do not understand them. i) Many are not comfortable with the principles of biology and genetics and have little scientific background. ii) Most Americans are raised in belief systems that do not emphasize the biological continuity between life forms. d) Yet, evolutionary theories are accepted, in part, by the Catholic Church and most mainstream Protestants. e) A Brief History of Opposition to Evolution in the United States reveals why most fundamentalists reject all scientific explanations of evolution. (1) After World War I, conservative Christians sought a revival of what they considered to be traditional values. (2) Historically, religious fundamentalists opposed the teaching of evolution in public schools at the pre-baccalaureate level, and some states prohibited any mention of evolution until 1968. (a) Proponents of creation science now prefer to use the term intelligent design.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 29 (b) Many attempts to legislate the teaching of evolution have been overturned, such as the attempted takeover of the Dover Area School Board that was thwarted when none of the eight members of the School Board were reelected in 2004. (3) The state and federal courts have consistently ruled that laws that require the teaching of ID violate the First Amendment of the Constitution. Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 2, the student should be able to: 1. Trace the major developments in scientific thinking that led to the discovery of evolutionary processes. 2. Compare Darwin’s and Wallace’s theory of natural selection to earlier explanations of how species came to exist. 3. Understand how natural selection operates on biological variation in species to cause evolutionary change over time. 4. Define the term fitness as it relates to reproductive success. 5. Explain how science and religion differ in their explanations of natural phenomena. 6. Discuss the history of opposition to the teaching of evolution in the United States. Key Terms and Concepts Binomial nomenclature p. 29 Natural selection p. 26 Biological continuity p. 43 Paradigm shift p. 28 Catastrophism p. 30 Reproductive success p. 39 Christian fundamentalists p. 44 Reproductively isolated p. 29 Fertility p. 41 Selective pressures p. 39 Fitness p. 39 Taxonomy p. 29 Fixity of species p. 27 Uniformitarianism p. 32 Genome p. 42 Student Activities Activities and Assignments 1. Visit PBS Evolution website and watch some of the videos related to Darwin and then practice with some of the web exercises available at ( 30 2. From Jurmain et al. Basic Genetics for Anthropology CD: Have students go through section I, Evolution and Natural Selection, and complete the quiz. 3. From J. Kappelman’s Virtual Laboratories for Physical Anthropology CD: Students should complete Section I of Lab 2: Evolution and Natural Selection to reinforce their conceptual understanding of natural selection. From Jurmain et al. Basic Genetics for Anthropology CD: Use the animations of evolution and natural selection to introduce these concepts for your lecture. 4. Use the Anthropology Resource Center and use the resources available there, including the Video Exercises on Natural Selection (). 5. Learn more about the complex person Charles Darwin was by watching one of the following films, many of these are available free at A. B. C. D. E. The video Charles Darwin: Evolution’s Voice from A & E’s Biography series is particularly relevant. Media Suggestions 1. The Discovery Channel has a series of short scientific video clips which explain the processes of evolution, available at 2. Visit the National Center for Science Education’s website, creationist attempts to teach “creation science” in public schools. First click on “Links” and then the “Critiques of Creationism” link and write a paragraph summarizing one of the critiques. 3. One historical figure that vehemently opposed Darwin’s ideas was Louis Agassiz (). Go to the University of California - Berkeley’s Museum of Paleontology website for information on Agassiz ( ideas. 4. Visit Berkeley’s website on Evolution ( Multiple Choice Questions 1. In Europe during the Middle Ages, it was believed that a. all species had evolved from a common ancestor. b. evolution was the result of natural selection acting upon genetic variation. c. all forms were created by God and did not change over time. d. most species had become extinct over time. e. life was created slowly, over millions of years.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 31 ANS: C REF: 26 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup 2. The belief that species do not change but are the same as when first created is known as a. fixity of species. b. the Great Chain of Being. c. heliocentric. d. uniformitarianism. e. natural selections. ANS: A REF: 27 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup 3. Just as technological change is based on past achievements, scientific knowledge builds on previously developed a. hypothesis. b. ideas. c. technology. d. theories. e. beliefs. ANS: D REF: 26 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: New 4. The plan of the entire universe was viewed as a. the binomial system. b. natural selection. c. uniformitarianism. d. God’s design. e. Lamarckism. ANS: D REF: 27 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup 5. How did the discovery of the Americas (New World) impact European understanding of biological diversity? A. It exposed them to plants and animals they had never seen. B. It proved the validity of biblical texts. C. It demonstrated fixity of species. D. It supported standing notions of the Great Chain of Beings. E. It had no impact on notions of biological diversity. ANS: A REF: 28 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 6. The fact that anatomical structures appear to be uniquely fitted to the functions they serve was the basis for theChapter 2: Mythology 32 a. theory of uniformitarianism. b. theory of natural selection. c. theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. d. theory of catastrophism. e. argument from design. ANS: E REF: 27 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup 7. Which 16th century Polish mathematician was credited with removing the earth as the center of all things (heliocentric)? a. John Ray b. Copernicus c. Galileo Galilei d. Aristotle e. Charles Lyell ANS: B REF: 28 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 8. Who first recognized that species were groups of organisms that were distinguished from other such groups by their ability to reproduce? A. John Ray B. Charles Darwin C. Carolus Linnaeus D. Alfred Russel Wallace E. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ANS: A REF: 29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 9. Who developed the binomial system of classifying biological organisms? a. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck b. Georges Cuvier c. Carolus Linnaeus d. Charles Lyell e. Erasmus Darwin ANS: C REF: 29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup 10. Carolus Linnaeus a. developed a binomial system of classification for plants and animals. b. was a proponent of evolutionary change. c. opposed all notions of fixity of species. d. was a supporter of Charles Darwin. e. developed theories of natural selection.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 33 ANS: A REF: 29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 11. _________ was an 18th century thinker who believed that living forms changed in response to the environment. Although he did not think nature was perfect or had a grand purpose, he still rejected the idea that one species could give rise to another. a. Alfred Russel Wallace b. Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon c. Erasmus Darwin d. John Ray e. Georges Cuvier ANS: B REF: 29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 12. Which naturalist attempted to explain the evolutionary process by suggesting a dynamic relationship between species and the environment? a. Jean Baptiste Lamarck. b. Erasmus Darwin. c. Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon. d. Galileo Galilei. e. Charles Lyell. ANS: A REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 13. Who was the first to offer a scientific explanation for how species changed? a. Carolus Linnaeus b. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck c. Charles Lyell d. Charles Darwin e. Erasmus Darwin ANS: B REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 14. The theory that the frequent use of an organ caused it to be enhanced was developed by a. Charles Darwin. b. Carolus Linnaeus. c. Georges Cuvier. d. Charles Lyell. e. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. ANS: E REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: PickupChapter 2: Mythology 34 15. The role of the environment as a significant factor in evolutionary change was first recognized and stated by a. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. b. Georges Cuvier. c. Thomas Malthus. d. Charles Darwin. e. Charles Lyell. ANS: A REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 16. The term “biology” was coined by a. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. b. Georges Cuvier. c. Thomas Malthus. d. Charles Darwin. e. Charles Lyell. ANS: C REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup 17. The theory that characteristics acquired during the lifetime of an individual could be passed on to that individual’s offspring is termed a. natural selection. b. catastrophism. c. the inheritance of acquired characteristics. d. uniformitarianism. e. fixity of species. ANS: C REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 18. The view that the extinction and the subsequent appearance of more modern forms could be explained by a series of disasters and creations is known as a. natural selection. b. catastrophism. c. use-disuse theory. d. uniformitarianism. e. descent with modification. ANS: B REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 19. The opponent of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck who proposed the theory of catastrophism was a. Charles Lyell.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 35 b. Alfred Russel Wallace. c. Thomas Malthus. d. Erasmus Darwin. e. Georges Cuvier. ANS: E REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 20. Thomas Malthus a. proposed that population size is kept in check by the limited availability of resources. b. wrote the theory of catastrophism c. wrote the theory of uniformitarianism d. had no influence on the development of Darwin’s and Wallace’s theories of natural selection. e. was a 16th century mathematician ANS: A REF: 31 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 21. Who proposed that population size increases at a faster rate than food supplies? a. Erasmus Darwin b. Alfred Russel Wallace c. Thomas Malthus d. Charles Lyell e. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ANS: C REF: 31 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 22. Who wrote Principles of Geology and emphasized the principle of uniformitarianism? a. Charles Darwin b. Charles Lyell c. Alfred Russel Wallace d. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck e. Thomas Malthus ANS: B REF: 32 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 23. The principle of uniformitarianism a. stated that the geological processes that operated in the past are still occurring in the present. b. was a problem for the development of evolutionary theories. c. proposed that the earth was only a few thousand years old. d. was the same as the theory of catastrophism. e. was first proposed by Georges Cuvier. ANS: A REF: 31 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: PickupChapter 2: Mythology 36 24. Which concept, proposed by Charles Lyell, was to have a profound effect on 19th century scientific thought? A. recent origins for earth B. the role of catastrophic events in producing geological phenomena C. natural selection D. the immense age of the earth and uniform processes E. the inheritance of acquired characteristics ANS: D REF: 32 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 25. Mary Anning is credited with a. the principle of uniformitarianism. b. being the co discoverer of natural selection. c. became known as one of the world’s leading “fossilists.” d. being married to Charles Darwin. e. writing the book Principles of Geology. ANS: C REF: 32 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 26. Charles Darwin a. grew up in modest circumstances. b. began to doubt the fixity of species during a voyage around the world in the 1830s. c. received no formal education. d. spent two years in Africa where he developed the theory of natural selection. e. was a physician who studied natural history as a hobby. ANS: BREF: 34-35 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 27. Although Darwin went aboard the HMS Beagle believing on the fixity of species, what discovery changed his beliefs? a. the people he met on the ship. b. the discovery of fossils of ancient giant animals similar to contemporary species. c. the distance from church and society. d. the death of his child. e. the discovery of savages which looked more like apes. ANS: B REF: 34 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 28. Charles Darwin a. was reluctant to publish his theories. b. wrote his theory of natural selection while still on board the Beagle. c. published his theories as soon as he returned from his voyage on the Beagle. d. was not concerned with public opinion and did not mind if his theories were criticized.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 37 e. knew his friends and colleagues would not be affected by the publication of his theory. ANS: A REF: 37 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 29. Which contemporary of Charles Darwin also developed a theory of evolution by means of natural selection? a. Charles Lyell b. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck c. Erasmus Darwin d. Alfred Russel Wallace e. Georges Cuvier ANS: D REF: 37 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 30. The fact that individuals who possess favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce than those who possess less favorable traits is the basis for the theory of a. uniformitarianism. b. natural selection. c. the inheritance of acquired characteristics. d. catastrophism. e. the fixity of species. ANS: B REF: 36 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup 31. Which of the following concepts DID NOT influence Darwin in developing his theory of evolution? a. Population size increases more rapidly than food supplies. b. There is competition among individuals for resources. c. Species are unchanging types, and individual variation within a species is not important. d. There is biological variation in all members of a species. e. Favorable variations are passed on and accumulate in populations over time. ANS: C REF: 35-36 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 3 MSC: Pickup 32. Which species in the Galapagos islands was fundamental to Darwin’s evolutionary ideas? a. The boobies b. The seals c. The tortoises d. The finches e. The iguanas ANS: D REF: 35-36 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 3 MSC: New Chapter 2: Mythology 38 33. Selective pressures A. remain constant, regardless of the environment. B. are unimportant in the evolutionary process. C. can change if environmental conditions change. D. are directionless and random. E. are not related to adaptation. ANS: C REF: 39 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup 34. “Fitness”, in an evolutionary sense, refers to an individual’s a. strength. b. reproductive success. c. aggressiveness. d. size. e. age at death. ANS: B REF: 39 DIF: Factual OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup 35. Which of the following is true about Alfred Russel Wallace? a. He was born into a very wealthy family. b. He joined expeditions to the Amazon and Southeast Asia. c. He was a very close friend of Charles Lyell. d. He published an article titled Principles of Geology. e. In 1858, he received Darwin’s paper titled On the Origin of Species. ANS: B REF: 38 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: New 36. Natural selection operates on _______, but it is the population that evolves. a. animals b. environment c. individuals d. populations e. finches ANS: C REF: 39 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: New 37. Creationist have been promoting laws that mandate teachings of creationism in public school, yet which U.S. Constitution Amendment has overruled these laws?The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 39 a. the 18th Amendment b. the 3rd Amendment c. the 1st Amendment d. the 13th Amendment e. these laws have not been overruled. ANS: C REF: 44 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: New 38. Religious groups who believe in an absolutely literal interpretation of the Bible are called a. scientists b. Muslims c. shamans d. messiahs e. fundamentalists ANS: E REF: 43 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: New True/False Questions 1. Evolution is a theory that has little scientific support. ANS: False REF: 26 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup 2. The “argument from design” was only authored and proposed by Charles Darwin. ANS: False REF: 27 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup 3. Erasmus Darwin was probably an important influence in Charles Darwin’s evolutionary thinking. ANS: True REF: 30 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 4. Use-disuse theory has recently displaced natural selection as mainstream science’s most accepted theory of evolutionary change. ANS: False REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 5. Georges Cuvier, author of Principles of Geology, is considered the founder of modern geology. ANS: False REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup 6. Charles Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection while visiting the Galápagos Islands and observing its finches. ANS: False REF: 34-37 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: PickupChapter 2: Mythology 40 7. Charles Darwin acknowledged the importance of sexual reproduction when formulating his theory of natural selection. ANS: True REF: 36 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 & 4 MSC: Pickup 8. Charles Darwin refrained from immediately publishing his theory of natural selection because he was aware of its controversial nature. ANS: True REF: 37 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup 9. There are no well-documented examples of natural selection operating in natural populations. ANS: False REF: 39-40 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup 10. Intelligent Design is not science because creationists insist that their view is absolute and infallible. ANS: True REF: 44 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: New 11. Some surveys show that about half of all Americans do not believe evolution occurs. ANS: True REF: 43 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: New 12. Proponents of “creation science” hold that their ideas are absolute and infallible. ANS: True REF: 44 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup Short Answer Questions 1. Explain how traditionally held views prevented wide acceptance of evolutionary theories in 19th century Europe and America. Give specific examples. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 25-26 DIF: ConceptualOBJ: 5 & 6 MSC: Pickup 2. Explain what is the period called the Scientific Revolution and its importance to the development of evolutionary theory. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 26-29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 3. Describe the work of John Ray and Carolus Linnaeus and how it served as precursors to the theory of evolution. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 29 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 MSC: New 4. Outline Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. According to this theory, what was the environment’s role in biological change? ANS: Answer not provided REF: 30 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup 5. Discuss the ideas of two individuals who significantly affected Darwin’s formulation of the theory of natural selection.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 41 ANS: Answer not provided REF: 34-35 DIF: Factual OBJ: 1 & 2 MSC: Pickup 6. Explain who Alfred Russel Wallace was and how he influential to the theory of natural selection. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 37-38 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 & 3 MSC: New 7. How did the expedition on the HMS Beagle influence Darwin’s development of evolutionary theory? ANS: Answer not provided REF: 34-36 DIF: ConceptualOBJ: 1 MSC: New 8. Explain how the study of the finches from the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador influenced Darwin’s understanding of natural selection. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 35-36 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: New 9. How is natural selection related to environmental factors? How can selective pressures change? Give an example. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 39 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup 10. Explain how the peppered moth in England is a very good example of natural selection and adaptation. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 39 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 3 MSC: New 11. Describe the four fundamental of evolutionary change and the importance of fertility. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 40-41 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 & 4 MSC: New 12. Discuss the definition of fitness as it pertains to natural selection. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 39 DIF: Factual OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup 13. Explains the various factors that pose opposition to evolution today. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 42-43 DIF: Factual OBJ: 5 & 6 MSC: New 14. Provide a brief history of opposition to evolution in the United States. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 43-44 DIF: Factual OBJ: 6 MSC: New 15. Explain why creationists oppose evolution and how they continue to attack its teachings. ANS: Answer not provided REF: 44-45 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 6 MSC: New Essay Questions 1. Many people argue that evolution is “only a theory”. Define theory and then describe how evolution does or does not fit the definition. ANS: Answer not provided 2. Discuss the role of differential fertility in natural selection. ANS: Answer not providedChapter 2: Mythology 42 3. Many people in the United States believe in the biblical creation. What factors may account for the fact that many people do not accept evolution as an explanation for the origins and diversity of life? ANS: Answer not provided 4. Explain why Charles Lyell’s principle of uniformitarianism was important to Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace as they developed their theories of biological evolution. ANS: Answer not provided Language and Culture Chapter 2 Multiple Choice 1. The principle of linguistic relativity a. has been largely disproven through ethnographic research. b. is widely accepted today. c. requires that we accept the fact that our language controls our organization of the world. d. is disproven by the fact that we can learn other languages and translate from one language to another. Answer: b [p. 32] 2. In the Hanunóo language, color distinctions are made at two levels of contrast. This fact a. indicates that most, if not all, Hanunóo speakers suffer from red/green color blindness. b. demonstrates the primitive nature of Hanunóo color categories. c. is, in fact, not an accurate statement, but simply the result of a failure to do sufficient intracultural research into Hanunóo color categories. d. supports the assertion that color is not a universal human concept. Answer: d [W/R] 3. A linguistic anthropologist sits down and starts asking you questions like these: What are the steps to selecting a class? Is what time the class happens something you think about when you select a class? What other things do you think about when you select a class? This linguistic anthropologist is probably constructing a. a self-help book. b. a grammar of university student English. c. a taxonomy describing your mental map. d. a survey of student attitudes about courses. Answer: c [p. 26] 4. A chart showing how words in a specific semantic domain are related to one another is called a a. frame of reference.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 43 b. componential analysis. c. taxonomy. d. mental map. Answer: c [p. 26)] 5. Whorf’s principle of linguistic relativity argues that different languages represent different a. levels of evolutionary sophistication in different cultures. b. ways of perceiving and thinking about the world. c. geographical surroundings. d. individual abilities. Answer: b [p. 33] 6. The existence of a large number of words about a particular topic is a strong indication of a. cultural focus. b. ethnocentrism. c. linguistic relativism. d. idiosyncrasy. Answer: a [pp. 19-20] 7. An egocentric deictic system is associated with a. a relativistic spatial reckoning system. b. a profoundly ethnocentric frame of reference. c. controversial captions on photographs. d. the analysis of topographic features. Answer: a [p. 35] 8. The term used to refer to a set of ideas we have about the way things should be is a. convention. b. cultural focus. c. nostalgia. d. ideology. Answer: d [p. 41] 9. Feature analysis is based on the idea that a. every member of a given category will be a perfect example of that category. b. phonological features of a language are linked to cultural focus. c. some members of a category can be more central than others. d. the categories of our language determine our experience of reality.Chapter 2: Mythology 44 Answer: c [p. 26] 10. The idea that knowing one language will not allow you to predict how another language will categorize and knowing one language and name the world is called a. linguistic relativity. b. ethnocentrism. c. linguistic determinism. d. ethnosemantics. Answer: a [p. 29] 11. Linguistic anthropologists use __________________ to reveal the culturally important features by which speakers of a language distinguish different words in a semantic domain. a. contrast analysis b. taxonomy c. componential analysis d. ethnography Answer: c [p. 26] 12. The fact that different languages divide and name the colors in a rainbow differently is an example of a. linguistic determinism. b. linguistic relativity. c. ethnosemantics. d. cultural emphasis. Answer: b [p. 29] 13. A recent challenge to the idea of linguistic relativity came from Berlin and Kay's study of a. basic color terms. b. essential kin types. c. words for water. d. words for snow. Answer: a [p. 30] 14. Berlin and Kay’s research suggested that color terms emerged during cultural development in an orderly fashion. They believed the first three stages of emergence were: a. (1) red, (2) blue, (3) black and white. b. (1) black and white, (2) red, (3) green or yellow. c. (1) black and white, (2) blue, (3) green. d. (1) red and blue, (2) black and white, (3) grey. Answer: b [p. 30] 15. The idea that language affects, and even determines, your ability to perceive and think about things, as well as to talk about them, is referred to as a. linguistic relativity.The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 45 b. linguistic determinism. c. the linguistic principle. d. ethnocentrism. Answer: b [p. 32] 16. Benjamin Lee Whorf wrote that “users of markedly different grammars are pointed by their grammars towards different types of observations and different evaluations of externally similar acts of observation, and hence are not equivalent as observers but must arrive at somewhat different views of the world.” He called this his a. principle of linguistic relativity. b. principle of linguistic differentness. c. principle of linguistic obligation. d. principle of grammatical determinism. Answer: a [p. 32] 17. “Pointing” concepts such as UP-DOWN, LEFT-RIGHT, or UPHILL-DOWNHILL, used to name directions in which we might point or find things, are called a. deictic concepts. b. relative markers. c. absolute markers. d. egocentric systems. Answer: b [p. 35] 18. The story Ottenheimer describes, told by blues musician Cousin Joe told about his encounter with a police officer in Mississippi, illustrates the idea that a. we are trapped within our frames. b. a speaker can shift the frame of an encounter to accomplish a goal. c. frames remain unchanged despite the passage of time. d. it is always a mistake to tell a joke to a police officer. Answer: b [p. 44] 21. In the 1960s, a linguistic-based approach to ethnography used language to explore a culture’s system of categorization. What was this approach called? a. cognitive anthropology b. ethnoscience c. ethnosemantics e. componential analysis Answer: d [p. 23] 22. The term used by cognitive anthropologists to refer to a specific area of cultural emphasis is a. semantic domain.Chapter 2: Mythology 46 b. cultural focal point. c. taxonomy. d. componential analysis. Answer: a [p. 23] 23. Scholars doing “the new ethnography” argued that the categorization system encapsulated in a language, and the way a language categorized items b. determined the mental maturity of the people who used it. c. was more sophisticated among “civilized” peoples. d. was a model, or mental map, that speakers had for that particular part of the world. e. could help elders in that culture to resist the symptoms of Alzheimer’s. Answer: d [p. 23]The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft 47 24. Anthropologist Harriet Ottenheimer employed ethnosemantic analysis in order to learn to: a. order drinks in a café in France. b. “speak computer” at her university. c. cook. d. travel around Kansas City. Answer: b [pp. 23-24] 25. The “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,” although never formulated as a hypothesis by either Edward Sapir or Benjamin Lee Whorf, has two forms: Strong Whorf and Weaker Whorf. In Strong Whorf, language is compared to a a. room. b. prison. c. road. d. ocean. Answer: b [p. 33] True/False 1. By employing the comparative method, linguistic anthropologists have discovered that learning a new language consists mostly of learning new labels for the same things. True False Answer: False [p. 43] 2. Different frames applied to very similar actions can result in dramatically different interpretations of those actions. True False Answer: True [p. 4