Morgan Clelland
Upheaval, Reaction,
and Reform
The Iranian Hostage
Crisis
, In 1979, the United States entered into a major crisis when the embassy in Iran was taken
over with nearly all personnel becoming hostages. After experiencing perceived aggression from
the United States over several decades, radical revolutionaries decided that the time had come to
overthrow the servile Iranian government and take back the country. Ayatollah Khomeini led this
effort and forced the ruling shah to flee to the United States, which then promoted increased
anger and additional attacks against American targets. Although an attack upon the American
embassy was not planned, Khomeini did see an opportunity to embarrass the United States and
increase his own power. President Carter of the United States vehemently objected to this hostile
takeover and demanded freedom for the hostages. However, strong objections did not fuel strong
reactions because Carter feared that the crisis could expand and result in the deaths of hostages.
The president believed that peacefully concluding the crisis through negotiation and economic
pressure was the most productive option. In the end, the Iranian Hostage Crisis was caused by a
prolonged history of perceived American aggression, continued when Khomeini saw a chance
for political gain, and was met with caution from Carter to avoid an expanded and costly crisis.
The United States first became involved in the country of Iran during the time period of
World War Two. During this conflict, concern arose that Germany might invade and conquer
Iran for control over the oil fields. This possibility seemed very real since Germany had sent over
one thousand military advisors that might create an alliance.1 In response, Britain and the Soviet
Union demanded that the government expel the German advisors and allow for total control over
railroad and port facilities.2 The following refusal from Iran held little importance since the two
powers simply decided that an invasion of their own would be launched. When America joined
1
Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House Trade
Paperbacks, 2005), 38.
2
Mark Gasiorowski, United States Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University Press, 1991), 43.
, the war, the newly installed Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi saw an opportunity to counter Soviet
and British influence. Pahlavi implored the United States to evict all other forces and allow for
the Iranian people to regain control.3 The United States was not about to begin a conflict with
major allies, but did seek a joint declaration that would assure Iranian independence one the war
had ended. This declaration became official when the Tripartite Pact was signed in 1942, which
required every power to remove all forces no later than six months after war.4
The beginnings of Iranian animosity against the United States also can be traced back to
World War Two. President Franklin Roosevelt declared that Iran should become a strong nation
that could remain independent after the war.5 However, he did not believe that Iran could become
strong without help. To facilitate this outcome, the president sent Arthur Millspaugh to reform
public finances with broad authority.6 Economic reform immediately created severe discontent
among the Iranian people. The upper classes became angered when progressive income taxes and
corruption crackdowns harmed their interests while nationalists were furious that a foreigner now
ran economic affairs.7 In addition, the economy worsened and sank into a serious downturn that
had widespread effects. Inflation rose to about five hundred percent and caused famine because
many families no longer had the means for purchasing basic food items.8 Many people had to sell
their land to gain enough money for scraping out an existence.9 Overall, there did not seem to be
3
James Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (London: Yale University Press,
1988), 18. The shah hoped to become more than just a mere figurehead in his own country. He wanted to create a
more powerful nation that could minimize foreign influence and strongly compete on the world stage.
4
Bill, 18. One the war had been over for six months, Russian forces still remained inside the country. The argument
was that not enough transportation was available for the soldiers and supplies. The Iranians raised great fear over
Russian slowness and came to the American government for help. While the Iranians did not expect that American
forces would stay, there was a hope that the United States would become a buffer against British petroleum. The
United States went before the United Nations and was able to obtain an agreement for the Soviet Union to take
out all remaining forces. This event became known as the Iran Crisis.
5
Pollack, 42.
6
Gasiorowski, 6.
7
Bill, 25.
8
Pollack, 43.
9
Pollack, 48.
Upheaval, Reaction,
and Reform
The Iranian Hostage
Crisis
, In 1979, the United States entered into a major crisis when the embassy in Iran was taken
over with nearly all personnel becoming hostages. After experiencing perceived aggression from
the United States over several decades, radical revolutionaries decided that the time had come to
overthrow the servile Iranian government and take back the country. Ayatollah Khomeini led this
effort and forced the ruling shah to flee to the United States, which then promoted increased
anger and additional attacks against American targets. Although an attack upon the American
embassy was not planned, Khomeini did see an opportunity to embarrass the United States and
increase his own power. President Carter of the United States vehemently objected to this hostile
takeover and demanded freedom for the hostages. However, strong objections did not fuel strong
reactions because Carter feared that the crisis could expand and result in the deaths of hostages.
The president believed that peacefully concluding the crisis through negotiation and economic
pressure was the most productive option. In the end, the Iranian Hostage Crisis was caused by a
prolonged history of perceived American aggression, continued when Khomeini saw a chance
for political gain, and was met with caution from Carter to avoid an expanded and costly crisis.
The United States first became involved in the country of Iran during the time period of
World War Two. During this conflict, concern arose that Germany might invade and conquer
Iran for control over the oil fields. This possibility seemed very real since Germany had sent over
one thousand military advisors that might create an alliance.1 In response, Britain and the Soviet
Union demanded that the government expel the German advisors and allow for total control over
railroad and port facilities.2 The following refusal from Iran held little importance since the two
powers simply decided that an invasion of their own would be launched. When America joined
1
Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House Trade
Paperbacks, 2005), 38.
2
Mark Gasiorowski, United States Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University Press, 1991), 43.
, the war, the newly installed Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi saw an opportunity to counter Soviet
and British influence. Pahlavi implored the United States to evict all other forces and allow for
the Iranian people to regain control.3 The United States was not about to begin a conflict with
major allies, but did seek a joint declaration that would assure Iranian independence one the war
had ended. This declaration became official when the Tripartite Pact was signed in 1942, which
required every power to remove all forces no later than six months after war.4
The beginnings of Iranian animosity against the United States also can be traced back to
World War Two. President Franklin Roosevelt declared that Iran should become a strong nation
that could remain independent after the war.5 However, he did not believe that Iran could become
strong without help. To facilitate this outcome, the president sent Arthur Millspaugh to reform
public finances with broad authority.6 Economic reform immediately created severe discontent
among the Iranian people. The upper classes became angered when progressive income taxes and
corruption crackdowns harmed their interests while nationalists were furious that a foreigner now
ran economic affairs.7 In addition, the economy worsened and sank into a serious downturn that
had widespread effects. Inflation rose to about five hundred percent and caused famine because
many families no longer had the means for purchasing basic food items.8 Many people had to sell
their land to gain enough money for scraping out an existence.9 Overall, there did not seem to be
3
James Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (London: Yale University Press,
1988), 18. The shah hoped to become more than just a mere figurehead in his own country. He wanted to create a
more powerful nation that could minimize foreign influence and strongly compete on the world stage.
4
Bill, 18. One the war had been over for six months, Russian forces still remained inside the country. The argument
was that not enough transportation was available for the soldiers and supplies. The Iranians raised great fear over
Russian slowness and came to the American government for help. While the Iranians did not expect that American
forces would stay, there was a hope that the United States would become a buffer against British petroleum. The
United States went before the United Nations and was able to obtain an agreement for the Soviet Union to take
out all remaining forces. This event became known as the Iran Crisis.
5
Pollack, 42.
6
Gasiorowski, 6.
7
Bill, 25.
8
Pollack, 43.
9
Pollack, 48.
