BSC 2085 Exam 4 & Exam 3 –
Yung Su FSu StudY guidE and
PraCtiCE QuEStionS 2026/2027
uPdatEd dirECt PaSS.
BSC 2086 Yung Su FSU exam 3
What is the difference between end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume?
End-diastolic volume (EDV) – volume in chamber after relaxation
End-systolic volume (ESV) – volume in chamber after contraction
How can you use these volumes (EDV & ESV) to calculate the stroke volume?
Its value is obtained by subtracting end-systolic volume (ESV) from end-diastolic volume (EDV)
for a given ventricle.
How can you calculate the cardiac output?
use the equation CO = HR x SV. This equation tells us that the cardiac output equals the heart
rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute, times the stroke volume (SV), which is
the volume of blood pumped by the ventricles with each heartbeat.
Explain how the heart can be regulated by the nervous system
Heart rate is controlled by the two branches of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).
,Explain how the heart can be regulated by the endocrine system
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones (catecholamines - epinephrine
and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate.
cardiac reflexes
series of autonomic reflexes that enable the cardiovascular centers to regulate heart function
based upon sensory information from a variety of visceral sensors
What is autonomic tone?
Autonomic tone is the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic aspects of the
system.
Atrial Reflex (Bainbridge)
Adjusts heart rate in response to venous return -
Stretch receptors in right atrium
Frank–Starling Principle
states that the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume
increases due to the myocyte stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction - more in
equals more out
how are atrial reflex and frank starling principle related
Starling’s law states that the more the heart fills the harder it will contract therefore the bigger
the stroke volume (up to a point). This is based on the principle that the force developed in a
muscle fibre depends on the degree to which the fibre is stretched. Therefore a rise in central
venous pressure will result in an increased stroke volume automatically.
Explain what can affect the end-systolic volume.
1. Preload
•Ventricular stretching during diastole
2. Contractility
•Force produced during contraction, at a given preload
, 3. Afterload
•Tension the ventricle produces to open the semilunar valve and eject blood
Explain how contractility is affected by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine
system
•Sympathetic stimulation
•NE (norepinephrine) released by postganglionic fibers of cardiac nerves (nervous system)
•Epinephrine and NE hormones released by adrenal medullae (endocrine system)
•Causes ventricles to contract with more force, increases ejection fraction and decreases ESV
(end systolic volume)
Describe the difference between the different types of blood vessels
Arteries - Carry blood away from heart
Arterioles - Are smallest branches of arteries
Capillaries - Are the smallest blood vessels
Location of exchange between blood & interstitial fluid
Venules - Collect blood from capillaries
Veins - formed from venules, return blood to heart
Which vessels are the largest? Which are the smallest?
he Largest Blood Vessels – Are attached to heart
Pulmonary trunk - Carries blood from right ventricle to pulmonary circulation
Aorta - Carries blood from left ventricle to systemic circulation
The Smallest Blood Vessels – Capillaries
Have small diameter and thin walls
Chemicals and gases diffuse across walls
What are the different tunics composed of?
1. Tunica Intima (Inner Layer) – tunica interna
Yung Su FSu StudY guidE and
PraCtiCE QuEStionS 2026/2027
uPdatEd dirECt PaSS.
BSC 2086 Yung Su FSU exam 3
What is the difference between end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume?
End-diastolic volume (EDV) – volume in chamber after relaxation
End-systolic volume (ESV) – volume in chamber after contraction
How can you use these volumes (EDV & ESV) to calculate the stroke volume?
Its value is obtained by subtracting end-systolic volume (ESV) from end-diastolic volume (EDV)
for a given ventricle.
How can you calculate the cardiac output?
use the equation CO = HR x SV. This equation tells us that the cardiac output equals the heart
rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute, times the stroke volume (SV), which is
the volume of blood pumped by the ventricles with each heartbeat.
Explain how the heart can be regulated by the nervous system
Heart rate is controlled by the two branches of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).
,Explain how the heart can be regulated by the endocrine system
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones (catecholamines - epinephrine
and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate.
cardiac reflexes
series of autonomic reflexes that enable the cardiovascular centers to regulate heart function
based upon sensory information from a variety of visceral sensors
What is autonomic tone?
Autonomic tone is the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic aspects of the
system.
Atrial Reflex (Bainbridge)
Adjusts heart rate in response to venous return -
Stretch receptors in right atrium
Frank–Starling Principle
states that the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume
increases due to the myocyte stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction - more in
equals more out
how are atrial reflex and frank starling principle related
Starling’s law states that the more the heart fills the harder it will contract therefore the bigger
the stroke volume (up to a point). This is based on the principle that the force developed in a
muscle fibre depends on the degree to which the fibre is stretched. Therefore a rise in central
venous pressure will result in an increased stroke volume automatically.
Explain what can affect the end-systolic volume.
1. Preload
•Ventricular stretching during diastole
2. Contractility
•Force produced during contraction, at a given preload
, 3. Afterload
•Tension the ventricle produces to open the semilunar valve and eject blood
Explain how contractility is affected by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine
system
•Sympathetic stimulation
•NE (norepinephrine) released by postganglionic fibers of cardiac nerves (nervous system)
•Epinephrine and NE hormones released by adrenal medullae (endocrine system)
•Causes ventricles to contract with more force, increases ejection fraction and decreases ESV
(end systolic volume)
Describe the difference between the different types of blood vessels
Arteries - Carry blood away from heart
Arterioles - Are smallest branches of arteries
Capillaries - Are the smallest blood vessels
Location of exchange between blood & interstitial fluid
Venules - Collect blood from capillaries
Veins - formed from venules, return blood to heart
Which vessels are the largest? Which are the smallest?
he Largest Blood Vessels – Are attached to heart
Pulmonary trunk - Carries blood from right ventricle to pulmonary circulation
Aorta - Carries blood from left ventricle to systemic circulation
The Smallest Blood Vessels – Capillaries
Have small diameter and thin walls
Chemicals and gases diffuse across walls
What are the different tunics composed of?
1. Tunica Intima (Inner Layer) – tunica interna
